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HU
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HARVARD UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
OP THI
mjsxuic OP ooMPASATiTB zo5i.oaT
JuAj.^O,/^'^^
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TRANSACTIONS
OF THB
HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
VOL. VIII.
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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
HERTFORDSHIRE
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
AND j
F I ]E^ L-I> OX IJ B .
/
/
/
EDITED BY JOmf EOPKINSOK, F.L.S., F.G,S.
VOLUME YIII.
NOTEMBKE, 1893, TO OcTOBER, 1895.
LONDON:
GURNET & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST. PATERNOSTER ROW.
HERTFORD: STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.
1896.
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. A
P'
HERTFORD :
PRINTED BY STKPHBN AUSTIN AND SONS.
IM2 ;
r ^^^2,
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CONTENTS.
PAOB
1. The Bronze Age. By Sm Jomr Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L.,
LL.D., Sc.D., Trea8.K.S., Y.P.S.A., etc. (Plates
I-IIL) 1
2. The Lower Micro-organisms and their Relation to Every-
day Life. By D. Hakvet Attfield, M.A., M.B., CM.,
D.P.H 13
3. The Natural History of the Salmon. By George Roopeb,
F.Z.S 17
4. The Wasp Infestation of 1893. By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.8.,
F.E.S 22
6. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1893. By Edwakd Mawlbt,
F.R.Met.Soc., F.R.H.SI 27
6. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1893.
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.Met.Soc. . . 33
7. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the
year 1893. By John Hopkinson ..45
8. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year. ,
1893. By Henry Lewis 49
9. Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St.
Albans, during the year 1893. By John Hopkinson,
F.L.8., F.G.8., F.R.Met.Soc 67
10. Further Notes on the Mycetozoa, with a List of Species
from Herts, Beds, and Bucks. By Jakes Saunders.
(Plates lY and V.) 65
11. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during
the year 1893. By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S. , . 74
12. Anniversary Address — A Wonderful Animal. By the
President, Arthur Stradung, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S. . . 85
13. The Relative Advantages of Hard and Soft Water, with
Special Reference to the Supply of Watford. By
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.Met.Soc. . . 101
14. On the Advantages of a Supply of Soft Water for the
Town of Watford. By Arthur King, M.B., CM.,
D.P.H 116
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Tl CONTENTS.
PAGB
15. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordsliire in the
year 1894. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
r.K.Met.Soc 125
16. The Blastopore of the Frog's Egg in Relation to the
Hypoblast. By J. B. Russell, B.Sc. (Plate YIII.) . . 129
17. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1894.
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. . . 131
18. The Floods of November, 1894, in Hertfordshire. By
John Hopkinson 141
19. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1894. By Henkt Lewis 147
20. Notes on Birds frequenting the Neighbourhood of Herons-
gate, Herts. By A. Smnsbubt VEHEr, M.B.O.U. . . 155
21. Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St.
Albans, during the year 1894. By John Hopkinson,
F.L S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc 161
22. Anniversary Address — The Stone Age in Hertfordshire.
By Sm John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D.,
Treas.R.S., Y.P.S.A., etc. (Plates IX-XIV.) . . . . 169
23. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during
the year 1894. By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S. . . 188
24. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1894. By Edwabd Miwley,
Pres.R.Met.Soc., F.R.H.8 193
25. The Gale of the 24th of March, 1895, in Hertfordshire.
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. . . 199
26. Miscellaneous Notes and Observations. — Entomology;
Meteorology. By Daniel Hill ; William Lucas ; and
John Hopkinson . . . . * , . . . . 203
Index, etc • 205
Peoceedings, November, 1893, to October, 1895, pp. ix-l;txii.
(Plates VI, VII, XV, and XVI.)
[To be inserted, in binding, before the Transactions.]
ERRATA.
Page 39, Table FV, col. 6 (Colne), last line but one, fw 24*60 read 24-57;
last line, for — 4*37 read — 4-40 : col. 7 (Ouse), last line, for
— 2-38 read —3-53.
,, 61, line 1,/or Oct. read Nov.
„ 137, Table IV, col. 7 (Ouse), last line, for +162 read +0*4 ; col. 8
(Thames), last line but one,/w' 2228 read 2828.
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES
To fact p.
I. Ancient Bronze Implements 1
!!• n » » •• 6
III. „ ,, M 12
IV. Mycetozoa 65
Y. Plasmodium of Badhamia utrtcularis 68
VI. Fig. 1. — Water End House, near Wheathampstead.
Fig. 2. — The Moat, near Wheathampstead . . xxvi
VII. Fig. 1.-— The Wymondley Chestnut. Fig. 2.—
Euined Arch, Wymondley Priory xxxvi
VIII. Development of the Frog^s Egg 129
IX. Ancient Stone Implements 169
X. M ,, M • . • 171
XI. Hertfordshire Stone Implements. Frontispiece, or 175
XII. „ „ „ 178
XIII. „ „ „ 182
XIV. „ „ „ 184
XV. Fig. 1. — Tomh of Lady Anne Grimston at Tewin.
Fig. 2.— The River Gade at Water End . . . . Ixiv
XVI. Fig. 1.— West Front of Dunstable Priory Church.
Fig. 2.— Part of West Front of Dunstable Church Ixx
Plates VI, VII, XV, and XVI are from photographs by the Editor.
OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. 1 . Artificial cone of flint 172
2. Flint core with flakes replaced upon it . . , . 173
3. Hammer found in Redmore Fen, Cambs ,, ,, 174
4. Stone adze or hoe, Welbury, Offley 175
6. Flint-flake, ground at edges, Charlton, Yorkshire 176
6. Flint- flake, near Hitchin 177
7. Bracer, Evantown, Ross-shire 179
Section through Tottemhoe Knoll and Kensworth
Hill, near Dunstable Izviii
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Dates of publication of the several parts contained in this volume :
Parti.
Pages 1-32 ..:..
MM.
October, 1894.
„ 2.
„ 33-64 ..„
.....
w...
.....
November, 1894
„ 3.
„ 66-88 .....
«...
...«
February, 1896.
„ *.
,, ix-xl
M...
~...
M.M
May, 1896.
,, 6.
„ 89-128
.....
.....
November, 1895
„ 6.
„ 129-168 _
.....
.....
December, 1895
n 7.
„ 169-204 ...„
...m
.....
.....
February, 1896.
„ 8.
,, xli-lxxii
.....
«...
.....
October, 1896.
„ 9.
„ i-viii, and 206-212
MM.
.....
November, 1896.
Dates of completion of previous volumes :
Transactions op the Wattokd Natural Histort Societt.
Vol. I. (pp. Ixiv and 248) «.- ...- ..... August, 1878.
„ II. (pp. Ix and 260) «-. ««. ..... June, 1880.
Transactions op thb Hertpordshirb Natural History Society.
I. (pp. Ixviii and 272) ..... ..... ^ May, 1882.
II. (pp. liviii and 286) May, 1884.
III. ^p. Ixxii and 274) ^ March, 1886.
IV. (pp. lii and 224) _. ^ ..... June, 1888.
V. (pp. xlviii and 224) «... May, 1890.
VI. (pp. Ixi and 204) _ July, 1K92.
VII. (pp. lii and 244) «. ^.. April, 1894.
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PROCEEDINGS
HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
Oeddtaey MEETnro, 14th Notembeb, 1893, at Watford.
iLRTHVE Stradlino, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Mr. Harold Kent, Mr. W. H. Norris, Mr. John L. Pank, Mr.
F. W. Keeder, and Miss Swindon were elected Members of the
Society.
Mr. John "William Duvall, The Grange, Ware; Miss Lake,
Wellfords, Bricket Road, St. Albans; and Dr. W. Duncan Scott,
M.A. (Oxon.), Glendearg, Watford, were proposed for membership.
The following lecture was delivered : —
•* The Bronze Age." By Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
ScD., Treas. U.S., V.P.S.A., etc. {'JVansactions, Yol. YIII, p. 1.)
The President referred to the recent discovery of pre-historic
human skulls which had been trephined, and he enquired whether
they belonged to the Bronze Age, and if so, whether the trephining
had been done with any small bronze implement known to Sir John.
Dr. Brett enquired whether the word "brass" in the Bible
would not be more correctly translated "bronze," as he had heard
stated at the recent meeting of the British Association.
Sir John Evans replied that he thought the trephined skulls
referred to by the President belonged, as a rule, to the close of the
Stone Age, and that the orifices in the skulls were probably made
by neat flint implements. The system of taking out portions of
the skull to relieve the inconvenience of headache was still
practised in Dalmatia, and with considerable effect. With regard
to Dr. Brett's question, as brass was a mixture of copper and
zinc, and zinc was a metal known only at a comparatively late
period, the word translated "brass" in the Bible ought certainly
to have been translated " bronze."
Bronze implements and diagrams were exhibited by Sir John
Evans in illustration of the lecture.
VOL. Tin. — PART IV.
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X PB0CEEDIKG9,
OiiDiNAKT Meeting, 16th Notbmbee, 1893, at St. Albans.
Arthuk Stradlino, Esq., M.E.C S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Dr. Dudley Buxton, Bushey Cottage, Bushey Heath, was
proposed for membership of the Society.
The following lecture was delivered: —
"Aquatic Mammals." By the President.
Having first drawn attention to the distinction between
amphibious and aquatic mammals, the President pointed out that
the latter might be divided into three great groups — (1) the seals
and their allies, true Camivora, (2) the Cetaceans, and (3) the
Sirenians. That the seals are immeasurably the youngest of the
three groups was, he said, proved by their structure. The sea-lion
or sea-bear, which furnishes the seal-skin fur, was more easily
trained than any other animal except the elephant. Its brain was
large and complex, and it possessed a high degree of intelligence,
having even been taught to count to a certain extent. The walrus
came between the sea-lion and the true seal, standing, however,
much nearer the former than the latter. Differing widely from
these aquatic Camivora were the Cetacea, in which group are
included such animals as the rorqual, sperm-whale, grampus,
porpoise, and dolphin, the more interesting points of the structure
and habits of each of which were successively passed in review.
The whale, he said, was probably the largest animal in existence,
having been estimated to weigh 200 tons, which is equal to an
army of about 3,000 men. The Atlantic right- whale or Greenland
whaJe yielded the whalebone of commerce, which was such a
valuable product, being worth about £3,000 per ton, or about
a third of its weight in silver. Having described some of the
curious uses to which whalebone is put, and referred to the toothed
whales, the President finally passed on to the consideration of the
third group of aquatic mammals, the Sirenia, in which are the
estuanne or fiuviatile dugongs and manatees.
Oedinart Meeting, 19th December, 1893, at Watford.
Arthur Stradling, Esq., M.E.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Dr. Dudley Buxton, Mr. J. W. Duvall, Miss Lake, and Dr.
"W. Duncan Scott, M.A., were elected Members of the Society.
Mr. J. Goodwin^ Langley Park House, Watford; Mr. Thomas
Hope, St. Konan's, Watford ; Mr. Clement Janes, Hunter's Farm,
Leavesden, Watford ; Mr. Picton Jones, Conishead, Watford ; Mrs.
Osborne, Widcombe Lodge, Watford; Dr. H. Ashton Rudyard,
St. Alban's Koad, Watford ; Mr. Rupert W. Sedgwick, 44 High
Street, Watford; Mr. Thomas Turner, Onkleigh, Watford; and
the Rev. Arthur Wilson, M.A , Leavesden Vicarage, Watford, were
proposed for membership.
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8ES8I0N 1893-94. xi
The following lecture was delivered : —
"Woodland Wanderers, or the Mycetozoa." By James Saunders.
An extempore lecture, the substance of which, with additions, was
afterwards embodied in ** Further Notes on the Mycetozoa, with
a List of Species from Herts, Beds, and Bucks." (Transactums,
Vol. VIII, p. 65.)
The lecture was illustrated by photographic slides representing
most of the Mycetozoa alluded to, shown by the oxy-hydrogen
lantern lent and manipulated by Mr. H. C. Wardale; and a slide
with living and moving Plasmodium of a Badhamia,
OttDiNAKr Meetino, 23bd Jajojaey, 1894, at Watfokd.
Abthub Stradliwo, Esq., M.E.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Mr. J. Goodwin, Mr. Thomas Hope, Mr. Clement Janes, Mr.
Picton Jones, Mrs. Osborne, Dr. H. A. Rudyard, Mr. Rupert W.
Sedgwick, Mr. Thomas Turner, and the Rev. Arthur Wilson, M.A.,
were elected Members of the Society.
Dr. Adams Clarke, Bushey, Watford; Mr. Arthur Dudgeon,
Northbank, Watfoid; Mr. E. G. Oddie, Oxford Lodge. Watford;
Mr. S. H. Spencer, jun., 45, Gladstone Road, Watford ; and Mr.
W. H. Williams, Alexandra Road, Watford, were proposed for
membership.
The following lecture was delivered : —
"The Lower Micro-organisms and their Relation to E very-day
Life." By D. Harvey Attfield, M.A., M.B., CM., D.P.H.
(Cantab.). {Transactions, Vol. VIII, p. 13.)
A discussion ensued in which the President, Dr. Brett, and
Dr. Morison took part.
The lecture was illustrated by means of the oxy-hydrogen lantern,
and by living micro-organisms shown under the microscope.
Special Meetino, 23rd jANUARr, 1894.
(At Watfokd.)
Aethur Stradling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
This meeting was convened for the purpose of considering and
passing certain alterations of the Rules proposed by the Council.
Mr. Hopkinson stated that the principal alterations would have
the effect of extending considerably the objects of the Society, and
of admitting another class of members, to be called ** corresponding
members." He then read the Rules with the revisions proposed,
explaining the alterations, which were put to the meeting seriatim
and carried.
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XU PROCEEDINGS,
The revised Rules are as follows : —
I. The Society shall be called the Hertfordshirb Natubal Histoby
Society and Field Club; its Headquarters shall be at Watford; and its
obiect shall be the investigation of the Meteorolof^, Geology, Botany, Zoology,
Ethnology, Pre-Norman Arehffiology, and Topography of the County of Hertford,
the publication of the results of such investigation, and the dissemination amongst
its Members of information on Physics and Biology.
II. The Society shall consist of Ordinary, Honorary, and Corresponding
Members^ including Ladies ; the number of Ordinary Members being unlimited,
the number of Honorary Members being limited to twenty, and the number
of Corresponding Members to ten.
III. The Management of the Society shall be vested in a Council, consisting
of a President, four Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, two Honorary Secretaries,
a Librarian, a Curator, and twelve other Members, to be elected annually,
by ballot, at the Anniversary Meeting. The President shall not hold office for
a longer term than two years, and in each year the senior Vice-President and
the three senior Ordinary Members of the Council shall not be eligible for
re-election; but the Council shall have power to fill up, from these or other
Members of the Society, any vacancy which may occur during the year.
IV. The Anniversary Meetings of the Society shall be held at Watford
in February; and Ordinary Meetings for the delivery of lectures, the reading
of papers, and discussions; Bye Meetings for microscopical study or other
purposes; and Field Meetings, shall be held at such times and places aa the
Council may direct.
V. Minutes shall be kept of the Ordinary and Anniversary Meetings of the
Society, and of the Meetings of the Council, and the Minutes of each meeting
shall be read as the first business of the next ensuing meeting of the same kind.
At the Council Meetings, to be held at Watford only, four Members shall form
a quorum.
VI. All Members shall have the privilege of attending the Anniversary,
Ordinary, Bye, and Field Meetings of the Society, and (unless otherwise
determined by the Council) of intr^ucing two Visitors at such meetings, and
shall be entitled to receive a copy of all the ordinary publications issued by the
Society during their membership, and to the use of the Library in accoroance
with tne library regulations.
VII. Every Candidate for admission as an Ordinary Member shall be
proposed by two or more Members, who shall sign a certificate in recommenda-
tion of such candidate, one of the nroposers from personal knowledge. The
certificate shall be read from the Chair at the Ordinary Meeting following
its receipt by either of the Secretaries, and the candidate shall be balloted
for at the next Ordinary Meeting at Watford, one black ball in six excluding.
VIII. The Annual Subscription for Ordinary Members shall be Ten Shillings,
payable immediately after their election, and afterwards becoming due in advance
on the 1st of January in each year ; but Members elected in the last two months
in any year shall be exempt from the pa3rment of subscription for that year. No
Member shall be entitled to any of the privileges of the Society whose subscription
is twelve months in arrear; and any Member whose subscription is two years
in arrear may be excluded from the Society by the Council.
IX. Any Ordinary Member may compound for his or her Annual Subscrip-
tions by a payment of Five Pounds.
X. All Ordinary Members shall pay an Entrance Fee of Ten Shillings, in
addition to their first year's subscription or life composition, before they are
entitled to any of the privileges of membership ; and the election of any Member
shall be deemed void whose Entrance Fee is not paid before a second year's
subscription becomes due.
XI. The Honorary Members shall be ladies or gentlemen of eminence in
Natural Science, or who shall have done some special service to the Society,
and whose usual place of residence is not in the County of Hertford.
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SESSION 1893-94. xiii
XII. The Corresponding Members shall be ladies or gentlemen whose
association with the Society is considered by the Council to be desirable, and
whose nsnal place of residence is not in the County of Hertford.
XIII. Honorary and Corresponding Members shall be elected only at the
Anniversary Meetings by the Members upun the recommendation of the Council,
not more than two Honorary Members and one Corresponding Member to be
elected in any one year.
XIV. Members wishing to resi^ at the termination of any year are required
to inform one of the Secretaries, in writing, of their intention to do so, on or
before the 31st of December in that year.
XV. The Accounts of the Society shall be made up to the Slst of December
in each year, and audited by two Auditors appointed at the first ensuing Ordinary
Meeting ; and the Balance Sheet, together with a Report on the general progress
of the Society during the preceding year, shall be suomitted to the Amuyersary
Meeting in February.
XVI. All the funded and other property of the Society shall be rested
in three or more Trustees, who shall be Life Members of the Society,
appointed by the Council.
XVII. The Society shall discourage the practice of removing rare plants
from the localities of which they are characteristic, and of exterminating rare
birds, fish, and other animals, and shall use its influence with landowners and
others for the protection of the characteristic birds of Hertfordshire ; the rarer
botanical specimens collected at the Field Meetings shall be chiefly such as can
be gatherea without disturbing the roots of the plants ; and notes on the habits
of birds shall be recorded instead of collecting specimens, either of the birds
or of their eggs.
XVIII. The Council may authorize the Society or any of its Members
to undertake the investigation of any subject of a scientinc nature relating
to Hertfordshire, and the results of such investigation may be published by
the Society.
XIX. No Rule shall be altered except by a majority of votes of the Members
present at a Special Meeting at Watford called for that purpose. The Council
may at any time, and shall upon a requisition signed by not lees than twelve
Members, convene a Special Meeting ; and a printed notice stating the purpose
for which the meeting is convened shall be sent to each Member not less than
seven days before such meeting, at which no business shall be considered except
that for which it was convened.
XX. A copy of these Rules shall be sent by one of the Secretaries to each
Member upon election to membership of the Society.
Obdinaet Meeting, 13th Pebbuaby, 1894, at Watfobd.
Abthub Stbadling, Esq., M.E.C S., F.Z.S., Presidont, in the
Chair.
Dr. Adams Clarke, Mr. Ai'thur Dudgeon, Mr. E. G. Oddie,
Mr. 8. H. Spencer, jun., and Mr. W. H. Williams were elected
Members of the Society.
Mr. F. C. Mahon, Wolfville, Watford, was proposed for
membership.
The following lecture was delivered : —
"Crystals and Precious Stones." By G. Herbert Wailes,
Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.
Mr. Wailes commenced his lecture with a historical account of
the uses to which crystals and precious stones have been put from
the earliest times, referring especially to the magical and occult
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XIV PEOCEEDIXGS,
properties with which they were supposed to he endowed, and to
their use in connection with nearly all religious heliefs. He then
passed on to the consideration of their physical properties, stating
that crystals are the natural forms which many substances take
when passing from a liquid to a solid state ; that gems are trans-
parent crystals whose hardness equals or exceeds that of quartz ;
and that precious stones are substaiices remarkable for their beauty
and rarity, such as turquoise, lapis-lazuli, opal, onyx, pearl, and
coral. The diamond, as the most lustrous, the hardest, and the
purest of all gems, received a large amount of attention.
After treating of the chemical composition, the crystalline form,
and the characteristic properties and appearance of all the better-
known, and some of the little-known precious stones, Mr. "Wailes
devoted the concluding portion of his lecture to the folklore of
gems, giving a large amount of information on the superstitions
which have been connected with them in almost all times and all
countries.
Specimens, models, and diagrams were exhibited in illustration
of the lecture.
Mr. T. J. Broad and Mr. G. H. "Wailes were elected auditors
of the accounts for 1893.
Anniveesary Meeting, 27th Februaet, 1894.
(At Watfobd.)
Abthtte Stradung, Esq., M.R.C.S., P.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
The Report of the Council for 1893, and the Treasurer's Account
of Income and Expenditure, were read and adopted.
Mr. James Saunders, 49 Rothesay Road, Luton, was elected a
Corresponding Member of the Society.
The President delivered an Address on " A Wonderful Animal."
{Transactions, Yol. YIII, p. 85.)
The following gentlemen were duly elected as the OflBicers and
Council for the ensuing year : —
President.— ArthMv Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
Vice-Fresidents.—^TofessoT John Attfield, M.A., Ph D., E.R.S.,
F.C.S., F.I.C. ; Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D.,
Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A., &c. ; Upfield Green, F.G.S. : John Morison,
M.D., F.G.S.
Treasurer, — John Weall.
honorary Secretaries, — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.,
F.R.Met.Soc. ; F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S.
Librarian. — W. R. Carter, B.A.
Curator.—A, E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.
Other Members,— Arthur P. Blathwayt ; Alfred T. Brett, M.D. ;
R. B. Croft, R.N". ; Augustus Hawks ; Daniel Hill ; Henry Lewis ;
William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S. ; T. Vaughan Roberts; George
Rooper, F.Z.S. ; Stephen Salter; F. W. Silvester; Henry Warner.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. xv
The thanks of the Society were accorded to the Bight Hon. the
Earl of Clarendon, Mr. John Hopkinson, Mr. "William Ransom, and
Br. C. E. Shelly, retiring from the office of Vice-President ; to Dr.
John Morison, retiring from the office of Honorary Secretaiy ; and
to Mr. A. M. Brown, Mr. J. Thomhill, the Bev. E. T. Yaughan,
and Mr. Percy Jenner "Weir, retiring from the Council.
Bepoet of the Coukcil foe the Yeae 1893.
The Council has much pleasure in reporting that the Society
continues to maintain a vigorous and prosperous condition. The
number of meetings held during the year has been up to the
average, they have been well attended, and great interest has been
taken in the papers which have been read.
During the year twenty-four ordinary members have been
elected, and one honorary member; twenty-six members have
resigned; and the Council regrets to have to record the loss of one
member by death — Mr. B. Bussell Carew, F.C.S., one of the
original members of the Society.
The number of members at the end of the years 1892 and 1893
was as follows : —
1892. 1893.
Honorary Members 19 20
life Members 61 61
Annual Subscribers 192 189
262 260
The following papers or lectures have been read or delivered
at Watford during the year : —
Jan. 17, Man and Ape; by Artbur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
Feb. 21, Anniversary Address — Cbarles Darwin ; by tbe President, John
Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.Met.Soc.
March 21, CHmatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the year
1891 ; by John Hopkinson.
Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1892 ;
by Henry Lewis.
Notes on some Hertfordshire Mammalia ; by T. V. Roberts.
April 18, Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in 1892; by John
Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the year
1892 ; by John Hopkinson.
Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,
during the year 1892 ; by John Hopkinson.
Observations of Temperature and Rainfall taken at Throcking
Rectory, Buntingford, 1880-89; by the Rev. C. W.
Harvey, M.A.
The Climate of Watford, deduced from Meteorological Obser-
vations taken during the ten years 1877-86; by John
Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire
during the year 1892 ; by Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc.
A Preliminary Introduction to the Investiji^ation of Microscopic
Leaf-Fungi; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
A List of Hertfordshire Hepatica; ; by A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S.
Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire ; by A. E. Gibbs,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XVI PROCEEDrNGS,
Nov. 14, The Bronze Age ; by Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A., etc.
Dec. 19, Woodland Wanderers, or the Mycetozoa ; by James Saunders.
The following lecture was delivered at St. Albans : —
KoT. 16, Aquatic Mammals; by the President, Arthur Stradling, M.B.C.S.,
F.Z.S.
The following Field Meetings were held during the year : —
April 29. — ^Bickmansworth. June 22. — Colney Heath and Titten-
May 13. — Brocket Park, Welwyn. hanger, St. Albans.
27. — Knebworth. Oct. 7.— Digswell Park and Sherrards
June 17.— Zouches Farm, Dunstable. Wood, Welwyn.
A visit was also made to the British Museum (Natural History)
on the 15th of April, when the President, Mr. StradHng, gave
a demonstration on ** Wingless Birds and their Eggs."
Five parts of the seventh volume of the present series of the
Society's * Transactions,' containing 168 pages and three plates,
have been published during the year, and the volume mil be
completed in two more parts, one (already printed) containing the
proceedings of the last two sessions, and the other the title page,
contents, index, etc., to the volume. The previous biennial volume
was completed in July, 1892, but your Editor hopes to complete
this one by April, or three months earlier in the year. While
viewing with satisfaction this more expeditious publication of the
•Transactions,' the Council desires to point out that it entails
an increased expenditure for the time, which can only be met
by an increase in the number of members, or by more punctual
payment of their subscriptions, by which there would be the
additional advantage of the work of your Treasurer being con-
siderably lightened.
Owing to the Society's recent removal to the Endowed Schools,
the library is at present in a somewhat disordered condition, but
the work of arranging the volumes and preparing for the binder the
Transactions of Societies received in exchange, and the serial
publications purchased, is progressing, and it is hoped will shortly
be completed. The catalogue of the library, revised to July, 1885,
and the supplementary catalogue, to December, 1889, are out of
print. As soon as possible a new catalogue or a list of the books
will be prepared.
In order to meet the convenience of members it has been thought
desirable that the library should be open for reference or the
exchange of books on the first Tuesday of every month from 7
to 8 p.m. as well as after the Society's evening meetings.
The following publications are forwarded to members who
desire it, on payment of the postage : — * Meteorological Magazine,'
* Natural Science,' 'Nature Notes,' *Grevillea,' * Journal of Botany,'
* Koyal Natural History,' * Entomologist,' * Entomologist's Record,'
'Journal of Conchology,* * Zoologist,' and * Hertfordshire Illustrated
Magazine.'
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94.
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Digitized by CjOOQIC
proceedings,
Additions to the Librabt in 1893.
Presented.
TiTLB.
Baxendbll, J. Borough of Soathport. Meteorological
Department. Report and Results of Observations for
the year 1892. 4to. Southport, 1893.
BucHAN, A. Handy Book of Meteorology. 8yo. London,
1868.
Evans, Sir John. Anniversary Address [to the] Society
of Chemical Industry, 12th July, 1893. 8vo. [London,
1893.1
HuxxBY, Prof. T. H. Six Lectures to "Working Men on
our knowledge of the Causes and Phenomena of
Organic Nature. 8vo. London, 1863.
KmBY, Rev. W., and W. Spencb. Introduction to
Entomology. 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1816.
Linn BAN Socibty. Journal. Botany. Vols, xxiii and
xriv. Zoology. Vol. xxii, Nos. 138 and 139. Vol.
xiiv. No. 153. 8vo. London, 1889-92.
Natural Scibncb. Vol. i, Nos. 1, 4-7, 9, and 10. 8vo.
London, 1892. Vols, ii and iii. Ih. 1893.
. Vol. i, Nos. 1-4. 8vo. London, 1892.
Obmbrod, Eleanor A. Report on Observations of Inj urious
Insects and Common Farm Pests during the year
1892. 8vo. London, 1893.
PowBLL, Rev. Baden. The Order of Nature. 8vo.
London, 1859.
Sctbnce Gossip. Nos. 337-344. 8vo. London, 1893.
Symons, J. G. (Ed.). Monthly Meteorological Magazine.
Vol. xviii. 8vo. London, 1893.
Wallace, A. R. Darwinism. 2nd Ed. 8vo. London,
1889.
Watbk Supply op London. Newspaper Cuttings, 1893.
BoNoa.
The Author,
Mr, J. Jlopkiruan,
The Author,
Mr. J. HophiMOH.
Mr, R. B. Croft,
Mr. A. E. Gibhs,
Mr. J, Hopkinson.
The Authored,
Mr. J. Hopkinson.
Mr. A. E. Gibbs,
The Editor.
Mr. J. Hopkineon.
Received in Exchange,
American Monthly Microscopical Journal. Vol. xiii. 8vo. Washington,
1892.
American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin. Vol. iv. Svo. New
York, 1892.
. Report for the year 1892. 73.1893.
Bath Natural BListory and Antiquarian Field Club. Proceedings.
Vol. vii. No. 4. 8vo. Bath, 1893.
Belfast Naturalists' Field Club. Annual Report and Proceedings.
Series 2, Vol. iii, part 6. 8vo. Belfast, 1893.
Birmingham Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. viii, part 1. 8vo.
Birmingham [ 1 893] .
Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society. Ahstracts of Papers
and Report , . . 14th June, 1893. 8vo. Brighton, 1893.
Bristol Naturalists' Society. Proceedings. New Series. Vol. vii, part 2.
8vo. Bristol, 1893.
CoNCHOLOGY, JOURNAL OF. Vol. vii, Nos. 6-8. 8vo. Leeds, 1893.
Ealing Microscopical and Natural History Society. Report and
Proceedings for 1892. 8vo. Ealing [1893;|.
Edinburgh, Botanical Society of. Transactions and Proceedings. Vol. lix,
part 2. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1893.
. Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. vi, part 6. 8vo.
Edinburgh, 1893.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. xix
EDiNBirROH. BoTAL PHYSICAL SociBTT. Proceedings. Session 1891-92. 8vo.
Edinburgh, lb93.
Essex Field Club. Essex Naturalist. Vol. ri, Nos. 11 and 12, and Index.
Vol. vii, Nos. 1-9. 8to. Chelmsford, 1893.
Glaboow, Geological Society of. Transactions. Vol. ix, part 2. 8?o.
Glasgow, 1893.
Natural History Society. Proceedings. New Series, vol. iii,
port 3. 8vo. Glasgow, 1892.
, Philosophical Society of. Index to the Proceedings, voU. i-xx.
1841-90. 8to. Glasgow, 1893.
-. Proceedings. Vols, xxiii and xxiv. 8vo. Glasgow,
1892-93.
Liverpool Geological Society. Proceedings. Vol. vii, part 1. 8vo.
Liverpool, 1893.
London, Geological Society of. Abstracts of the Proceedings. Session
1892-93. 8vo. London, 1893.
. Geologists' Association. Proceedings. Vol. xiii, parts 1-6.
8vo. London, 1893. Index to vol. xii. lb.
Qubkett Microscopical Club. Journal. Series 2, vol. v.
Nos. 82 and 33. 8vo. London, 1893.
. Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal. Vol. xix.
8vo. London, 1893.
The Meteorological Becord. Vol. xii, Nos. 47, 48.
VoL xiii. No. 49. 8vo. London [1893].
Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. New Series. [Vol. v.]
8vo. London, 1893.
Manchester Field-Naturalists' and Archjrologists' Society. Report
and Proceedings for the Year 1892. 8vo. [Manchester] 1893.
. Geographical Society. Journal. Vols, viii and ix, Nos. 1-6.
8vo. Manchester, 1892-93.
Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. xxii, parts 3-13. 8vo.
Manchester, 1893.
Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.
Series 4, vol. vii, Nos. 2, 3. 8vo. Manchester, 1893.
Microscopy and Natural Science, Journal of. Series 3, vol. iii, parts
17-20. 8vo. Bath, 1893.
Midland Naturalist. Vol. xvi. 8vo. Birmingham, 1893.
New York State Library. 73rd and 74th Annual Reports. 8vo. Albany,
1891-92.
. Bulletin. 8vo. New York, 1893.
State Museum. 4dth Annual Report, for the year 1891. 8vo.
Albany, 1892. 46th Annual Report, for the year 1892. /*. 1893.
Northamptonshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Journal.
Vol. vii, Nos. 49-52. 8vo. Northampton, 1893. Index to vol. vi. lb.
Rugby School Natural History Society. Report for the year 1892.
8vo. Rugby, 1893.
Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Board of Regents ... to
July, 1891. 8vo. Washinffton, 1893.
. Report of the United States National Museum ... for the year
ending June 30, 1891. lb. 1892.
Somersetshire Arch^bological and Natural History Society. Pro-
ceedings for 1892. New Series. Vol. xviii. 8vo. Taunton, 1893.
United States Department of Agriculture. North American Fauna.
8vo. Washington, 1893.
. Bulletin, No. 3. The Hawks and Owls of the United
States in their Relation to Agriculture. By A. K. Fisher. lb. 1893.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Part xvi. Report for
1888. 8vo. Washington, 1892. Part xvii. Report for 1889-91. lb.
1893
Bulletin. Vol. x, for 1890. 4to. Washington, 1892.
Vol. xi, for 1891. lb. 1893.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XX PROCEEDINGS,
Unitbd States Gbolooical Survet. lOth Annnal Report, for 1888-89. By
J. W. Powell. Part 1, Geology. Part 2, Irrigation. 4to. Washington,
1890.
. lltii Annual Report, for 1889-90. By J. W. Powell.
Part 1, Geology. Part 2, Irrigation. lb. 1891.
Monograpl^. Vol. xviL The Flora of the Dakota
Group. By Leo Lesquereux. lb. 1891.
Vol. xviii. Gasteropoda and Cep
of the Raritan Clays and Greensand Marls of New Jersey. By R. P.
Whitfield. /*. 1892.
Vol. XX. Geology of the Eureka District,
Nevada. By Arnold Hague. /J. 1892.
. Atlas to accompany the Monograph on the Geology of
the Eureka District, Nevada. Foho. Jb. 1893.
Mineral Resources of the United States for 1889 and
1890. 8vo. Washington, 1892. For 1891. lb. 1893.
Wiltshire Arch£OLooical and Natural History Society. Magazine.
Vol. xxvii. No. 79. 8vo. Devizes, 1893.
. Catalogue of the Collection of Wiltshire Trade Tokens in the
Museum. lb.
Yorkshire Naturausts* Union. Naturalist. New Series. Vol. xviii. 8vo.
Leeds, 1893.
PUECHASED.
Botany, Journal op. Vol. xxxi. 8vo. London, 1893.
Buckler, W. Larvae of the British Butterflies and Moths. Vol. v. (Ray
Society.) 8vo. London, 1893.
Cameron, P. Monograph of the British Phytophagous Hymenoptera. Vol. iv.
(Ray Society.) 8vo. London, 1893.
Entomologist. Vol. xxvi. 8vo. London, 1893.
Entomologists' Record. Vol. iv. 8vo. London, 1893.
Field Club. Vol. iv. 8vo. London, 1893.
Grsvillea. Vol. xxi, Nos. 97-100. Vol. xxii, Nos. 101, 102. 8vo. London,
1892-93.
Hertfordshire Illustrated Magazine. Vol. i. 8vo. St. Alhans, 1893.
Nature Notes. Vol iv. (Sclbome Society.) 8vo. London, 1893.
Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and
Ireland. Tenth Annual Issue. 8vo. London, 1893.
Zoologist. 3rd Series. Vol. xvii. 8vo. London, 1893.
Obdinabt Meeting, 20th Mabch, 1894, at Watpobd.
Aethue Steadling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Mr. F. C. Mahon was elected a Member of the Society.
Mr. Alfred E. Cox, 78 Queen's Road, Watford; Mr. C. A. Curry,
"Woodoaks, Rickmansworth ; Mr. Daniel A. Wehrscbmidt, Cleve-
land, Bushey, Watford; and Mr. T. P. Grosart Wells, L.R.C.P.
(Edin.), St. Peter's Street, St. Albans, were proposed for member-
ship.
A letter was read from Mr. James Saunders, of Luton, thanking
the Society for his election as a corresponding Member.
The following paper was read : —
"The Natural History of the Salmon." By George Rooper,
r.Z.S. (.TraMoctioM, Vol. VIII, p. 17.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. xxi
A discussion ensued in which the President, Professor Attfield,
Dr. Brett, Mr. Hopkinson, and Mr. Vaughan Roberts took part.
ORDDTAKr Meetinq, 17th April, 1894, at Watpord.
Abthub Sthadling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Mr. Alfred E. Cox, Mr. C. A. Curry, Mr. Daniel A. Wehrschmidt.
and Mr. T. P. Grosart Wells, L.R.C P. (Edin.), were elected Members
of the Society.
Miss Adams, St. Peter's House, St. Albans, and Mr. Noel Heaton,
Sans Souci, Watford, were proposed for membership.
The following papers were read : —
1. "The Wasp Infestation of 1893." By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S.,
F.E.S. {IVamactions, Yol. VIII, p. 22.)
2. "Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1893." By Edward Mawloy, F.R.Met.Soc,
F.R.H.S. (Transactions, Vol. VIII, p. 27.)
3. " Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1893." By Henry Lewis. {Transactions, Vol. VIII, p. 49.)
4. ** Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during the
year 1893." By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S. {Transactions,
Vol. VIII, p. 74.)
The following papers were taken as read : —
1. "Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1893."
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.Met.Soc. {Transactions,
Vol. VIII, p. 33 )
2. " Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the
year 1893." By John Hopkinson. {Transactions, Vol. VIII,
p. 45.)
3. "Meteorological Observations taken at the Grange, St. Albans,
during the year 1893." By John Hopkinson. {Transactions, Vol.
VIII, p. 57.)
Bye Meeting, 218t April, 1894.
NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON.
This meeting was under the conductorship of the President,
Mr. Arthur Stradling, and was well attended, a party of about
fifty assembling in the Great Hall of the Museum.
The members were received by Sir William Flower, Director
of the Museum and an honorary member of the Society, who
invited special attention to a new collection of representative birds'
eggs, and to some extraordinary insects just brought over from
Madagascar, and exhibited on the actual slips of moss covered bark
on which they were caught. These creatures are supposed to
illustrate better than anything else in the animal world the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXll PROCEEDINGS,
protection from observation afforded by mimicry of their sur-
roundings, for, although each was nearly as large as a florin,
it was almost impossible to detect them for some time under the
closest scrutiny, and not a few of the visitors seem to have come
away without detecting them at all.
After a glance at the Index Collections, which he declared
to be the salient feature of the Museum and a whole education
in themselves, the President led the way to the room devoted
to the stuffed specimens of reptiles such as exist at the present
day. The peculiarities which distinguish the crocodile, alligator,
and gavial were first pointed out, particular attention being drawn
to the fact that these beasts are enabled, owing to the position
of their eyes, ears, and nostrils, to lie with the entire bulk of their
huge bodies submerged, and yet to breathe, listen for signs of
danger, and watch for their prey. The manner in which the
nasal passages tunnel the whole length of the enormous upper
jaw is also of great advantage to them, allowing them to hold
down and drown an animal too powerful to be otherwise disposed
of, while breathing without embarrassment themselves, and to
remain in that attitude if necessary until the flesh of large prey
should become softened. Only the bigger forms of lizards and
serpents are suitable for display in the dry state, but the cellars
of the Museum contain many thousands preserved in spirit for
purposes of scientific study. Fantastic species, such as the frilled
and spiny iguanas, are well represented in the room, as well as the
monitors, greatest of all the lizard tribe, reaching a length of seven
or eight feet, and feeding not only on the eggs of the crocodiles
but on the newly-hatched young ones. The President spoke in
terms of strong disapproval of the collection of snakes as being
wrongly named in many instances, erroneously described on the
labels, and badly set up ; but explained that most of them were
survivals of the old Bloomsbury days of the Museum, and that
to replace them with better specimens (as will certainly be done
eventually) must be the work of time.
Having inspected the most striking and gigantic fossil reptiles
in the gallery allotted to those now extinct, the party proceeded
upstairs to the great collection of the stuffed mammals, where Mr.
Stradling restricted his remarks for the most part to such as are
becoming rare and may be considered on the verge of extermination.
Some of the creatures commented upon had been actual pets or im-
portations of his own when alive, and had been contributed, when
dead, by him to the Department, either directly or through the
Zoological Society. The scarce red wolf of Paraguay (stolen from
him and sold to provide funds for a wedding tour) was amongst
these.
After a demonstration lasting about two hours, the proceedings
terminated with a vote of thanks to the President.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. xxiii
Field Meeting, 28Tfl Apeil, 1894.
AYOT ST. PETER AND AYOT ST. LAWRENCE.
Although Ayot Station has frequently been the trysting-placo
for a field meeting of the Society, this is the first time that the
walk has been in the direction of Ayot St. Lawrence, past the
churches — the new and the old — of Ayot St. Peter. At each of
the Ayots there is a portion of an old church standing at some
distance from the one now used, but while at Ayot St. Peter an
elegant building has replaced an ugly one, at Ayot St. Lawrence
a beautiful Norman church has been discarded in favour of a
hideous Grecian temple.
Ayot St. Peter is also known as Little Ayot; it contains 1097
acres; while Ayot St. Lawrence, or Great Ayot, contains only
737 £ujres, and its population, like its acreage, is two-thirds that of
its ** Little" neighbour. Salmon says that in Domesday Book the
name was written Eia; Chauncy says Eye. Salmon derives the
name from '* Ayest, or Desert, a wild, uncultivated place"; Chauncy
from Eye or ** Ea, which," he says, ** signifies a watry place."
The members were met at the station by the Rev. H. Jephson,
Rector of Ayot St. Peter, who first conducted them through the
picturesque grounds of The Fryth, the residence of Mr. C. W.
Wilshere, where the Alpine rock-garden attracted much attention,
many rare and beautiful Alpine plants being in bloom. The new
church of Ayot St. Peter, which owes its existence mainly to
Mr. Jephson's exertions, and the schoolrooms, were then visited,
and amongst other interesting objects the register, dating from the
year 1686, was examined, wherein was seen an account of the
great flood of *' 1795. Feb^. Sunday y« 8^1^." This account is
transcribed by Cussans in his * History of Hertfordshire ' (Broad-
water Hundred, p. 250).
A visit was then paid to the Rectory, where, quite unexpectedly,
the members were invited to partake of tea and other refreshments.
The portion of the old church still standing, now used as a
mortuary chapel, was next examined. This is at least the third
church built upon the same spot, half a mile from the new church.
Ayot St. Peter was a Rectory as early as the twelfth century, but
no record exists of the builtliug of the first church. Chauncy, in
1700 (*Hist. Antiq. Herts,' p. 321), speaks of the church as
*' situated on a dry hill, not far from the River Lea and the
Mimeram"; and Clutterbuck, in 1821 ('Hist. Herts,' vol. ii,
p. 265), says that this old church was rebuilt, with the rectory-
house, ** by Ralph Freeman, who was instituted to the rectory
in the year 1732." This church, when Clutterbuck wrote, was
"a small octagonal building of brick," with a belfry, separate
therefrom, " also of brick, forming an entrance into the church-
yard on the south." Cussans ('Hist. Herts,' Broadwater, p. 245^
speaks of this building as having the aspect of a •* lock-up," and
says that in 1862 it ** gave place to another which even surpassed
it in some of its objectionable features." On the 10th of July,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXIV
PROCEEDINGS,
1874, the new church was struck by lightning, and, the woodwork
taking fire, the greater part of it was destroyed. The present
church was then built, half a mile nearer the village. Mr.
Jephson pointed out the still-existing evidences of the fire and
showed the former extent of the church ; and in taking leave the
thanks of the party were accorded to him for his courteous attention
and hospitality.
A field-path was then taken to Ayot St. Lawrence to see its
ruined church, the most picturesque in Hertfordshire. The tower
is nearly perfect, but the rest of the church is in utter ruin,
through its demolition rather than falling to decay, for it was
unroofed and partly pulled down. The church was built by one
Eadhere, to whom the manor was granted by Henry the First.
**He built the Church with Stone," says Chauncy, "and then
began the Hospital near it, which Church was founded . • . 1123,
23 H. I." In the year 1778 Sir Lionel Lyde built in his own
park a new church on the plan of a heathen temple, and commenced
to pull down the old one, but the Bishop interfered, and he had to
desist, leaving the walls roofless and the tower only intact.
After viewing the old ruins and visiting " the abomination," as
Cussans remarks, "which is now dignified by the name of the
parish church," tea was partaken of at the village inn, and then
the walk was continued through Lamer Park to Wheathampstead
Station.
In the course of the walk the following plants were observed
in flower, and recorded by Mr. Hopkinson, the director of the
meeting : —
XJlex europaeos, L.
Sarotbamnus vulgaris, Wimm,
Medicago lupulina, L,
TrifoUum pratense, Z.
„ repens, L,
Vicia sepium, L.
sativa, X.
Anemone nemorosa, X.
Myosnrus minimus, Z.
Ficaria vema, Hudi,
Ranunculus acris, L.
„ auricomiis, L,
,, bulbosus, L.
Caltba palustris, X.
Fumaria officinalis, L.
Gardamine pratensis, X.
,, hirsuta, X.
Alliaria officinalis, Andrz.
Sisymbrium officinale. Scop.
,f tballianum, J, Gay,
Sinapis arvensis, X.
Erophila vulgaris, DC.
Capsella bursa -pastoris, Moench
Beseda lutea, X.
Viola Riviniana, Reichb,
,, canina, X.
Poly^a vulgaris, X.
Melandrium silvestre, Roehl.
Cerastium arvense, X.
Stellaria bolostea, X.
Moebringia trinervia, Clairv.
Acer pseudo-platanus, X.
Geranium Rooertianum, X.
Oxalis acetosella, X.
Ilex aquifolium, X.
Ervum hirsutum, X.
Prunus cerasus, X.
,, spinosa, X.
Fragaria vesca, X.
Potentilla fragariastrum, X.
Poterium sangnisorba, X.
,, muricatum, Spach,
Pyrus mains, X.
,, „ var. acerba.
,, ,, var. mitis.
Cratsegus oxyacantba, X.
Cbseropbyllum temulum, X.
Antbriscus silvestris, Hoffm.
Scandix pecten- veneris, X.
Sanicula europeea, X.
Galium cruciata. Scop.
Asperula odorata, X.
Senecio vulgaris, X.
Leucanthemum vulgare. Lam,
Bellis perennis, X.
Taraxacum officinale, Weber,
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SESSION 1893-94. xxv
Hieracium pilosella, X. Primula ynlgaris, HwU.
Fraxinus excelsior* L. ,, officinalis, J acq.
Lithospennum arrense, X. Plantago lanceolata, X.
Myosotis ^ustris, Kelh. Rumex acetosa, X.
y, intennedia. Link. Mercurialis perennis, X.
Veronica officinalis, X. Euphorbia amygdaloidea, X.
,, chamsBdrys, X. Quercus pedunculata, ^ArA.
,, serpyllilolia, X. Betula yerrucosa, Ehrh.
,, agrcstis, X. Orchis mono, X.
,, hedencfolia, X. Scilla nutans, Sm.
Aju^ reptans, X. Luzula campestns, DC.
Lamium album, X. Carex ripana, Curt,
Galeobdolon luteum, Huda. „ acutifomus, Ehrh.
Glechoma hederacia, X. „ paniculata, X.
The most interestiiig plant in the list is the mousetail, Mf/osurut
minimus, which was found hy Mr. A. E. Gibbs in a field between
The Fryth and Ayot St. Peter's Church. It is recorded in Pryor^s
* Flora of Hertfordshire * as a " Weed in the garden of The Fryth,
near Welwyn." Crepis iaraxacifoUa was observed by Mr. James
Saunders in hud near Wheathampstead, a new locality for it.
Field Meeting, 19th Mat, 1894.
BROCKET PARK AND WHEATHAMPSTEAD.
Starting again from Ayot Station, a party of about forty,
including members from St. Albans, Watford, Hitchin, Hertford,
and other places, under the direction of Mr. Hopkinson, walked
through Brocket Park, taking a private path amidst hawthorns
in full blossom and through a wood towards the flint bridge,
by permission of Lord Mount Stephen, and at his request not
wandering into the wood so as to disturb the game. In the park
are some fine old trees, and on one hillside an immense quantity
of wild hyacinths was seen, giving for an extent of several acres
a beautiful rich blue tint.
A field-road was then followed by the side of the River Lea
as far as Water End House, over which the members w(^ro shown
by Lord Cowper's tenant, Mr. James Colo. Some interesting
incidents relating to the history of the house, and of the Manor
of Sandridge, in which it is situated, were given by Mr. Upton
Robins and the director, the connection with it of the beautiful
and accomplished Sarah Jennings, Duchess of Marlborough, an
ancestor of the present Earl Spencer, Lord of the Manor of
Sandridge, being especially dwelt upon, and Mr. Cole showed the
room in which it is believed that she was bom on the 6th of June,
1660. She was baptized in St. Alban's Abbey. The house was
built about the year 1610 by Sir John Jennings, and is a fine
example of the architecture of the period.
Crossing the river here by the foot-bridge, the road leading
to Coleman Green was taken as far as the turning to Lower Beech
Hyde Farm, an ascent nearly all the way. A little beyond the
farm-buildings the field- road crosses the Moat, a trench in which
VOL. Vin. — PART IV.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXTl PBOCEEDIKGS,
there is always water, and it was found that, notwithstanding the
recent dry weather, the ground here was moist, even the road
being slightly muddy, showing that water is retained in the moat,
"which is locally known as "The Slud," owing to the retentive
nature of the clayey subsoU. The moat is nearly haK-a-mile in
length, and curves round, but not so that the two ends nearly
approach each other, and there is no indication that it ever
enclosed any defensive earthwork or buildings.
Nearly a quarter of a mile beyond the moat there is a deep and
dry trench called **the Devil's Dyke," about half a mile in length.
The earth has been thrown up on either side, and the roadway
through it, which was traversed, leads almost straight dowTi the
hill to Marford. This dyke seems to be very similar to Beech
Bottom and the dyke at Maynes, near St. Albans, and, like these
earthworks, is generally believed to be of early British origin, but
no satisfactory explanation as to its purpose, nor that of the moat
near it, has been offered. It is probably either a portion of an
ancient British tribal boundary or of an old fosseway, perhaps once
continuous with Beech Bottom.
At Marford foot-bridge the Lea was again crossed, and the
meadow by its side (now cruelly fenced off with barbed wire) was
traversed as far as WTieathampstead. Taking the road to the north
for a short distance, and then a path across the fields on the left,
Delaport was reached at six o'clock, and the members and their
friends were most hospitably entertained at tea by Mr. and Mrs.
Upton Eobins. The walk had been at least five miles in length,
the air was keen if not positively cold, and the natural result was
a healthy appetite, so that ample justice was done to the repast.
At its conclusion a vote of thanks was accorded to the host and
hostess for their kindness, on the proposition of Mr. William
Ransom, seconded by Mr. Hopkinson.
Most of the members then returned to their respective destinations
by train from Wheathampstead Station, some drove or rode home,
and several accompanied the director on foot to St. Albans, by way
of No Man's Land Common, Hill End, and Sandridgebury.
The following ornithological notes are contributed by Mr. Henry
Lewis : —
The song-thrush, nightingale, chiffchaff, blue tit, jay, and cuckoo
were heard. The robin, whitethroat, willow- wren, swallow, green-
finch, yellow-hammer, and skylark were both heard and seen. The
starling was seen, and a broken starling's egg was found on the ground.
Nests were seen of the blackcap, chaffinch, and yellow-hammer,
containing eggs ; of the reed-bunting, containing young birds ; and
of the blackbird and wren, without either eggs or young birds.
** Wren's nests," Mr. Lewis adds, "which are often found of
imperfect construction, and containing no eggs, are called in the
country * cock's nests.' They are supposed to be built by the male
bird for his own accommodation at night."
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. iS/r., Vol. VII J ^ Plate VI,
The Moat, neab Whbathampstead.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. ' xxvii
Field Meeting, 26th Mat, 1894.
LUTON, CADDINGTON, AND DUNSTABLE.
This meeting was held in conjunction with the Geologists'
Association of London, and was under the direction of Mr.
Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S., of Dunstable. The chief object
was to enable Mr. Smith to show to the members of the two
societies the beds at Caddington from which he has obtained
a large number of Palseolithic flint implements, described in his
book, * Man, the Primeval Savage.'
Arriving at Luton at a few minutes to eleven, the party first
inspected the parish church of St. Mary and noticed particularly
the use of local materials in its construction, the tower being built
of Tottemhoe Stone and flints from the Upper Chalk in alternate
cubes. In the interior, the Wenlock chapel, the ancient font with
its ornate canopy, and the fine oak carvings, attracted attention.
The quaint inscriptions on some of the tombs were also noticed.
Soon after leaving Luton on the way to Caddington a storm
came on, and the party sheltered for some time in a bam. The
walk being continued by Farley Green to Woodside, some brick-
fields between that hamlet and Slip End were visited. The pits
are in re-laid Tertiary clay about 50 feet thick and 400 feet above
sea-level, and, in the whitish beds above this clay, abraded
Palseolithic flint implements have been found.
Bedfordshire having been left for Hertfordshire, the county
boundary running through Caddington, the brick - fields near
Caddington were visited, and Mr. Worthington Smith stated
that he had come to the conclusion from long and careful
investigation that they were on the site of an ancient lake, on
the shores of which huts were built in which dwelt the
primitive inhabitants who have left many relics attesting their
occupation of the site. Here they made their implements, and
left the fiint tools they made them with and the flakes they
chipped off in making them. Many of those which Mr. Smith
has found he has pieced together, building up with them the
flints in their original form, thus showing that the fragments
were struck off on the spot. Many of the flint flakes, of which
some hundreds have been found, have edges nearly as keen as
those of knives.
The men who built these huts and made these implements were
already, as Mr. Smith says in his book, skilful workmen, and they
were therefore not nearly the most ancient of the human race, for
** man must have existed thousands of years as a being incapable
of designing and making stone weapons and tools of geometrically-
correct form." They probably migrated from warmer climes,
and, travelling over Europe in a north-westerly direction, reached
Britain (which then formed, with Ireland, pait of the European
continent) as glaciers were here for the last time retreating north-
wards.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXVlll PROCEEDINGS,
There is evidence near Caddington of the great northern ice-
sheet with glaciers at its southern margin, in beds of boulder-clay,
the clay itself being the ground-up surface-material of the district
where it is now found, and often having much chalk in it, also
of local derivation, whence it is called the ** chalky boulder-clay.**
The stones or boulders which it contains, mostly water- worn and
frequently ice-scratched, have been brought down by glaciers from
higher land in the north, west, and east, often from great distances.
In this boulder-clay no relics of man are found, though human
relics occur immediately above it ; but bones of the great hairy
elephant or mammoth, of the reindeer, and of other animals con-
temporaneous with man, occur in a stratum of sand, gravel, and
clay intercalated in it. After its deposition the land probably sank
beneath the surface of the icy sea, and was then re-elevated to a
greater height than it now stands. The rivers then were broad
and ran at great heights, as is known ** by the deposits of river-
gravel, sand, brick- earth, and fresh- water shells which occur in
terraces on the hill-sides bordering the Thames Valley. In these
deposits of gravel, sand, and brick-earth, relics of the primeval
human savage first appear. In some positions these relics are
comparatively abundant, not on the surface, but imbedded amongst
the constituent stones of the gravel and sand, or fixed in the brick-
eeirth a hundred or more feet above the present river- level.**
(*Man, the Primeval Savage,* p. 7.)
Caddington is on the Chalk capped with re-distributed Tertiary
beds, brick-earth, and gravel. The brick-yards near the village
are from 550 to 600 feet above sea-level, and the water-level .in
the Chalk — ^the level of permanent saturation — varies from about
110 to 160 feet beneath the surface of the ground. This probably
represents the extent of the depression in the water-level since Man
first took up his residence on the shores of the ancient lake or
swamp whose bed has been traced by Mr. Smith in pits on both
the Hertfordshire and the Bedfordshire side of Caddington. Every
important find, however, has been made in pits in our own county,
and it was these which were now visited.
The pits are in Drift (brick-earth, etc.) and Tertiary remanii
beds, and are worked for gravel as well as for clay and sand for
brick-making. After examining the section in one of the pits,
Mr. Cameron stated that the Tertiary beds, upon which lies the
Palaeolithic floor with its artificially-rtdsed heaps of flints, were
Reading sands and clays probably estuarine in origin, and that the
bed immediately above was brick-earth. The section wtis very
obscure, the sides of the pit having fallen in, but Mr. Smith stated
that above the brick-earth he had found contorted beds of clay
and gravel with Palaeolithic implements and flakes, then r&manie
boulder-clay with sub- angular gravel above, again with Paloeolithic
implements and flakes, the whole being capped by reddish-brown,
tenacious drift clay, and surface- soil with Neolithic implements of
black lustrous flint, etc.
There are thus three distinct layers in which Palaeolithic flint
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. xxix
implements occur, the lowest being the Palaeolithic floor or old
land-surface, with flint tools varying in colour "from whitish-grey
to dark grey, grey iadigo, or mdigo-blackish," nearly all being
lustrons; the middle layer having porcellanous, white, or whitish
implements, flakes, and cores, identical in age with the implements
found on the true ** floor"; and the upper layer having generally
ochreous implements — yellow, brownish, speckled, creamy, or
ochreous-whitish — and all slightly abraded. The tools in this
layer differ in their nature from those below, and Mr. Smith
believes that they are of different age, showing a second occupation
of the spot by primeval man ; while the presence of Neolithic tools
in the surface-soil shows a third and much more recent occupancy,
for there must have been a considerable interval of time between
the period when man made implements by merely chipping off
flakes of flint and that when he rounded and polished stones of
various kinds.
This neighbourhood was again inhabited in Eoman and in Saxon
times, for in one of the Caddington pits numerous fragments of
Boman pottery have been found; in other places near have been
discovered cinerary urns, stones used, when heated, for pot-boilers,
and numerous other relics attesting the early occupation of the
country ; and by the side of the road from Caddington to Zouches
Farm was seen a large Saxon tumulus not marked on the Ordnance
map. Close to Zouches Farm was also seen an old pasture believed
to have been a place for making bricks or tiles in Mediseval or
perhaps Roman times. It was pointed out that in the construction
of the farm-house, notably in the chimney, Boman tiles were used,
which it was thought might have been obtained from excavations
on the site, or more probably from an older building which the
present house has replaced.
Zouches Farm is on the Dunstable Downs, and a little farther
on, overlooking Dunstable, but still in Hertfordshire, some hollows
in the hill- side were pointed out by Mr. Smith, who stated that
they were the remains of early British hut-foundations, of which,
till lately, there were twenty-four, but eight of the best had been
destroyed. In one of them he had found the greater part of a
human skeleton. Deep excavations were, he explained, made by
these primitive inhabitants, and were roofed in with skins, etc.,
these hollows forming more effectual shelter than tents erected
on the natural surface of the ground.
From this point, some 600 feet above sea-level, and about
the horizon of the Chalk Bock, is an extensive view to the north
and west, embracing Dunstable, Meiiden Bower (an early British
camp), the Five Knolls (ancient tumuli), and Kens worth Hill
(800 feet), on the Middle Chalk ; Tottcmhoe, with its beacon-hill
and evidences of early British and Boman occupation, on the Lower
Chalk ; and beyond, a Gault plain bounded by distant hills of
Lower Green sand.
The steep hill was descended in a heavy shower, from which
a hedge -bank on the boundary between Herts and Beds afforded a
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXX PROCEEDINGS,
scanty shelter. At Dunstable a substantial repast was partaken
of near the crossing-point of the two Koman road-ways, Watling
Street and Icknield Way, after which a vote of thanks was
accorded to Mr. Worthington Smith, on the proposition of the
President of the Geologists' Association, Lieut.-General C. A.
McMahon.
The residence of Mr. Smith was then visited, and his extensive
geological and archaeological collection was examined with much
interest ; and on the way to the Great Northern Station a brief
inspection was made of Dunstable Priory Church, with its beautiful
west front of Tottemhoe Stone and fine Norman arch.
Bye Meeting, 16th June, 1894.
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, REGENT'S PARK.
On this occasion there was the largest gathering of the Society
which has ever taken place, more than 140 members and their
friends presenting themselves for admission at the turnstiles of the
Zoological Gardens. The meeting was favoured with almost perfect
weather, and the ornamental lawns and flower-beds of the Gardens
were at their best. Actual members of the Society were admitted
free on signing their names at the gate, whUe tickets were provided
for all whose names did not appear on the list by the President,
Mr. Arthur Stradling, by whom the party was conducted.
The pelican's enclosure was first visited, and attention was
drawn to the fact that nowhere else in London can white birds be
seen so little sullied by the sooty atmosphere as these, a state of
purity maintained by the well-filled ponds with which they are
provided. These birds, with the seals, sea-lions, and otters, sub-
sisting as they do entirely on fish, are the most expensive creatures
in the menagerie to feed — far more so than the lions and tigers,
which are among the least costly. The Zoological Society pays
nearly £600 a year for fish, including about £2 a week for live fish
for the diving-birds. The great open-air cage for the waders was
spoken of as probably the finest tenement for any captive animals
in the world ; enjoying abundant opportunities for even lofty flight
within its spacious area, the birds are seen in a condition which
approximates to freedom, and nest and breed there as they do in no
other zoological establishment.
The series of cages on the opposite side is tenanted for the most
part by representatives of the great and worldwide group of the
GtdHnaceous birds, those akin to our common domestic fowls,
the " curassows" or mountain turkeys being especially in evidence
just now in the Society's collection. Like so many animals which
make their home in the Now World, these are arboreal in habit.
In this part of the grounds, too, are shown specimens of the
interesting Weka-rail of New Zealand, a creature rapidly on the
road to extinction, in spite of recent efforts to effect its preser-
vation, its extermination being due, like that of the apteryx, to
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. zxxi
the ill-advised introduction of the mongoose as an experimental
antidote to the rahbit-plague. These beautiful and defenceless
birds, nesting on the ground, fall an easy prey to the marauding
carnivore, wfich also devours their eggs. The hombills with their
phenomenal beaks and helmets, and two fine examples of the
Brazilian screamer, a bird in which the ** air-sacs " extending from
the lungs are so developed that it can absolutely inflate its naked
legs when enraged, were noticed in passing.
The animals in these Gardens are arranged in groups according
to their systematic relationship, so far as is consistent with the
well-being of each individual, not thrown together haphazard or
simply with regard to picturesque effect in the way that obtains
in many Continental menageries. Thus, the Perissodactyla, or
"odd-toed" ungulates, are presented in a continuous chain of
houses in the shape of the sole survivors of a once enormous race
— the rhinoceros, elephant, tapir, and horse (zebras and wild asses).
Having given a short demonstration on the camels and their
allies, the llamas and alpacas, showing how the formation of the
feet which distinguishes them from aU other animals proves their
relationship, though they inhabit opposite comers of the earth
and each is specialized for its mode of life, the President led the
way to the north side of the grounds, where "Jenny," a young
chimpanzee, successor to the lamented and famous "Sally," and
a large gibbon, were taken out of their cages while their respective
likenesses and points of distinction with regard to humanity were
described. As both these anthropoid apes were very tame and
trustworthy, and submitted with the utmost docility to the exami-
nation as well as the caresses of the visitors, the lecture would
have been prolonged at this point had it not been for the great
heat and inconveniently-overcrowded state of the small house.
Both specimens illustrated admirably the various instances of
comparison and contrast, such as the entire absence of hair on the
terminal joint of the fingers and toes, even when viewed through
a strong magnifying glass, a peculiarity which we alone of all
animals share with them.
The curious structure of the feather-like fur of the ant-eater,
each hair of which is nearly square in section, and its huge
development of tongue, next attracted attention; and in the
adjoining marsupial house another instance of that singular
mimicry, real or apparent, which so many of the pouched animals
offer in respect of higher groups, was shown by certain little
beasts newly arrived from Australia, almost exactly simulating
rabbits in their outward aspect.
The specially-constructed dens which were inhabited for so many
years by the giraffes, of which a large number were bred in the
establishment, are stiU retained in their original form, although
it is sadly improbable that any other example of this beautiful
ungulate will ever reach our shores alive — indeed, a skin and
skeleton for the National Museum is now a desideratum; the
relentless war which is waged against them in their native haunts
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXXU PBOCEEDINGS,
for the sake of their hides (worth abont £4 apiece for the making
of colonial cattle-whips) must unfailingly result in their tot^
extermination before long, although that enlightened chief, Khama,
is doing his best to prevent their slaughter within his territory.
Their place is now occupied by a pair of Zebu oxen and the large
African ostrich presented by the Queen, both of which served as
types of their respective sections for the purpose of demonstration,
the former furnishing a text for a short lecture on horns, antlers,
and similar structures, while the latter was utilized as subject-
matter for some remarks upon that modification of the hand and
arm which constitutes a wing, an evolution which these archaic
birds evince even more obviously than those endowed with the
faculty of flight. The ostrich in question is very gentle, and
offered no resistance to being posed in its capacity of an object-
lesson in the hands of its keeper.
Most of the houses and groups were visited in turn, Mr.
Stradling lightening the more scientific part of his discourse with
personal anecdotes of the history or peculiarities of disposition
of the specimens under observation. The sea-lions and diving-
birds were fed and put through their various performances specially
for the benefit of the Society, and in the lion and reptile houses
the members were admitted ** behind the scenes," and shown the
arrangement of the dens, sundry baby specimens, and other details
not revealed to the general pubHc.
A very young and playful leopard, and a cheetah, just arrived
and not yet unpacked, were the centre of attraction at the rear
of the lion-house, where the ingenious apparatus by means of
which the great cats are transferred from their sleeping compart-
ments to the open-air and other cages was exhibited in its working.
The alligators and egg-eating lizards in the reptile-house were
indulged with an extra meal, for the benefit of the visitors no
less than their own; and some of the serpents were taken from
their dens in order that the points of interest attaching to them
might be more advantageously indicated.
At half -past five an adjournment was made to the large saloon
of the restaurant, where Mrs. Stradling entertained the party
at tea, while the strains of the band of the 1st Dragoon Guards
contributed pleasingly to the harmony of the occasion. At the
conclusion of the meal. Archdeacon Lawrance proposed a hearty
vote of thanks to Mr. and Mrs. Stradling, and alluded to the
fact that the Hertfordshire Natural History Society had scarcely
ever been more prosperous or had a greater increase in its roll of
members than at the present time, under the reign of the President
who had brought them there that afternoon.
The President responded briefly, saying that he hoped the visit
to the Zoo would become an affair of annual recurrence in their
summer fixtures.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. xxxiii
Field MEEmfo, 23rd June, 1894.
THING.
The chief ohject of this meeting was to visit the Zoological
Museum established by the Hon. Walter L. Rothschild, F.Z.S.,
at Tring. Mr. Rothschild's pennission having been obtained, the
arrangements were made by Mr. A. Macdoncdd Brown, of Beech
Grove, Tring, who acted as director.
The members, numbering about forty, assembled at Tring Station
at half-past one, and drove to the Museum, where they were
received by Mr. Rothschild's principal Curator, Mr. E. Hartert.
Only a few of the more interesting objects of the collection which
were pointed out by Mr. Hartert can here be mentioned.
The first case which attracted special attention was one of extinct
and nearly extinct birds, such as the Moa {Dinomis) of New
Zealand — probably the biggest bird that ever lived, and which, in
former days, was hunted by the Maoris. The same case contains
some enormous bones of the ..^yomtSy a gigantic bird of nearly
equal size from Madagascar, of which no entire skeleton has been
obtained; and also specimens of the Kiwi {Apteryx) of New
Zealand, which is not yet quite extinct but will probably soon
become so, falling a prey to rats, cats, and other animals introduced
there by man. These are wingless birds. The Labrador duck
{Camptolamus labradorieus), seen in another case, is also nearly
extinct.
In another case a hybrid between the lion (Felis Uo) and the
tiger {F, tigris), bom in Austria, attracted attention from the
strangeness of such ferocious animals of distinct species breeding
togetiier.
There are a few fossils, introduced to elucidate the afl^ties of
the living forms. Amongst them one of the most conspicuous is
the giant ground-sloth {Megatherium americanum) of the Argentine
Republic, in juxtaposition with a stuffed skin and skeleton of the
recent two-toed sloth (Choloepua didactylm) from the same region,
to illustrate the various differences.
The fishes are stuffed here by a new process. Amongst them
are already most of the British species, including an enormous
sun-fish, and many foreign rarities, specially noticeable being
some species with beaks like those of parrots.
. Besides the large collections which are open to the public on
four days of the week, there are private collections, which, from
the standpoint of the zoologist, are still more valuable. They are
for the scientific researches of Mr. Rothschild as well as of his
curators and other competent persons, and are not generally
accessible to visitors. These collections consist only of Lepidoptera,
Coleoptera, and the skins and eggs of birds, and they are being
arranged, studied, and added to continually. The results derived
from these studies are given in an illustrated magazine {*Novttatss
Zooloffiea ') edited and published at the Museum, and to which the
Society subscribes. The butterflies and beetles, which are under
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XX XIV PK0CEEDIW08,
the special care of the second curator, Dr. K, Jordan, are especially
numerous, and amongst the latter a box attracted much attention
in which Mr. Rothschild, for his own study, had arranged a
number of beetles in a graduated series, each beetle differing but
very slightly from its neighbour, while half-a-dozen specimens at
least might be picked out which, but for the connecting links,
would unhesitatingly be referred to different species.
In the library, an indispensable adjunct to all well-appointed
museums, there is a very fine collection of zoological and other
natural-history works.
In an enclosure outside the Museum were seen some living
examples of the sacred cattle of India, mostly bred here, and also
a large collection of living birds.
Tring Park, adjoining — the seat of Lord Rothschild — was next
visited, and in it were seen emus (wingless birds) and kangaroos.
The party, accompanied by Mr. Hartert, then drove to "Dundale,"
a pretty dell excavated in the Middle Chalk by a stream issuing
from a spring which is one of the feeders of the Thame. Several
birds are breeding here, including the Rhea, an American winged
bird allied to the ostrich. A few clutches of eggs, which are
occasionally added to, were seen. The male bird only sits upon,
them.
The following account of the Dundale spring, and of other springs
in the neighbourhood, is contributed by Mr. A. M. Brown : —
"The spring at Dundale is one of the four sources, in the
Lower and Middle Chalk of Tring, of, originally, as many small
streams, which, soon imiting north-westward from the escarpment,
once flowed out of our county to the valley of the Thame. The
water-bearing beds producing them are the Tottemhoe Stone,
the Rag-bed of the Lower Chalk, some 40 feet higher, and the
Melboum Rock, forming the base of the Middle Chalk, about
80 feet above the Tottemhoe Stone.
"The Melboum Rock, with its underlying marly bands, is
probably responsible for * Dundale' and the springs at ^Frogmore'
in the town of Tring, and the Rag-bed for those at Miswell and
Bulboume Head, the latter sending two streams in opposite
directions, one running south-east through Berkhamsted, the other
north-west by Gubblecote or Bubblecote, forming there the boundary
between Herts and Bucks.
"By the constmction of the Grand Junction Canal and its
reservoirs at the end of the last century, and the erection of the
Tring Silk Mill in 1824, all these streams were diverted, and a
considerable length of those issuing from Bulboume Head absorbed.
The other three were conducted to the Silk Mill and thence by
an embanked * feeder ' to the Reservoirs, whence a corresponding
flow has to be delivered to the ancient channels beyond.
"In 1889 Dundale was converted by Lord Rothschild into its
present picturesque state by raising the level and increasing the
extent of the water, planting numerous trees, and building the
pretty lodge and summer-room near the Icknield Way."
^ Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-04. XXXV
The meeting was very pleasantly brought to a close by a visit
to Beech Grove, the residence of Mr. Brown, where tea and other
refreshments were provided, collections of fossils and of dried plants
were examined, and a photograph of the party was taken by Mr.
Downer of "Watford. Yotes of tiianks were accorded to Mr. Brown,
to the Hon. Walter Rothschild, and to Mr. Hartert ; and Tring
Station was reached at about six o'clock.
Field Meetiko, 30th Juke, 1894.
STEVENAGE, THE WTMONDLEYS, AND HITCHIN.
The members assembled at noon at Stevenage Station, where
they were met by a few members of the Hitchin Natural History
Club, and by Mr. "William Ransom, P.S.A., who had made all the
arrangements for the meeting, providing carriages for the ladies,
and also acted as director.
After passing through Fisher's Green the first object of interest
inspected was the famous old Spanish chestnut tree at "Wymondley
Bury, near the church of Little "Wymondley. This tree is now
fifteen yards in circumference at four feet from the ground, the
trunk is hollow and riven quite to the ground in several places, but
the foliage is still luxuriant. Some enormous branches which have
fallen off have taken root and sent up saplings which grow around
the parent stem. The age of the tree is unknown. It is not
mentioned in Domesday Book, but it was probably standing at
the time of the Norman Conquest. Canon Gee, in his paper on
"Famous Trees in Hertfordshire" in the Society's Transactions
(* Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. II, p. 8) says that this is
the largest tree that he knows, and seemingly the oldest, in
Hertfordshire. **It is now," he adds, "the wreck of a wreck.
There is not half of its circumference standing, though a print at
High Elms, of the year 1790, shows the tree as much more nearly
perfect." The following description of the tree which Mr. Ransom
read from Gilpin's * Forest Scenery,' a work which was written at
about this time, would however well apply to it now : —
" After mentioning a chestnut in the garden at Tortworth, in Glouce9ter[8hire],
which has been celebrated so much, I cannot forbear mentioning another, which
is equally remarkable for not having been celebrated at all, though it is one of
the largest trees that perhaps ever existed in England. If it had ever been
noticed merely for its bulk, I should have passed it over among other eigantic
Eilants that had nothing else to boast; out as no historian or antiquarian
antiquary], so far as I have heard, hath taken the least notice of it, I thought
it right, from this very circumstance, to make up the omission, by giving it at
least what little credit these papers could give. This chestnut tree grows at
a place called Wimley, near Hitchin Priory in Ilertfordshire. In the year 1789,
at five feet from the ground its girth was somewhat more than fourteen yards.
Its trunk was hollow, and in part open, but its vegetation is still vigorous. On
one side its vast arms, shooting up in various forms, some upright and others
oblique, were decayed and peeled at the extremities, but issued from luxuriant
foliage at their insertion in the trunk. On the other side the foliage was still
fuU and hid all decay."
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXXVl PBOCEEDiyOS,
Mr. Bansom then compared this Spanish chestnut with the
"Grizzly Giant" of California, a Sequoia gigantea^ which he
measured when in the Mammoth Grove at Calaveras in 1887, and
found to he thirty-one yards in circumference near the ground,
only a little more than double that of the " Wymondley Giant."
He also lamented that means were not taken to protect this
venerable tree from injury. Many less noteworthy trees are
carefully fenced round and preserved as national monuments, as
this ought to be.
Little Wymondley Church was then visited. It is at least the
third church which has been erected on the same site. Cussans
(*Hist. Herts,' Broadwater, p. 61) says that "the Vicarage, from
the time of its ordination by the Bishop of Lincoln, in 1209, until
the Dissolution of Religious Houses by Henry VIII, belonged to
the Prior and Convent of Wymondley. It then, by grant of the
King, became a donative in the gift of the owner of the Priory."
The old Priory is no longer in existence, but on its site is
a comparatively modem house to which the same name has
appropriately been given. It is occupied by Mr. Charles
Sworder, and by his peimission it wais now visited, the village
of Little Wymondley, to the north-east of which it stands, having
been passed through. In the old box-trees enclosure, a square
space enclosed by box-trees, lunch was partaken of, Mrs. Sworder
kindly providing refreshing beverages, especially acceptable just
in the hottest part of a very hot day. While still in the shade
of the box-trees, Mr. Hansom gave a brief history of the Priory.
It was founded, he sedd, in the reign of Henry the Third to the
honour of St. Lawrence, by Richard de Argentein, for canons
of the order of St. Augustine, and according to Chauncy (*Hist.
Antiq. Herts,' p. 361) it was " a fair old Building with Cloysters ;
there was a Chappel in it consecrated since the Dissolution, [it was]
almost surrounded with a Mote, scituated upon the Side of a small
Hill, incompassed with near 400 Acres of rich meadow, pasture,
and arrablc Land inclosed to it, with a very fair Orchard and
Garden, yielding the best Sort of Fruit. The House is supply'd
from a Conduit, with sufficient Water to turn the Spit in the
Kitchen upon all Occasions." Mr. Sworder added that his father
could remember the time when the spit wais thus worked, but this
contrivance has been done away with for many years, and there
is not now a sufficient flow of water to turn the spit upon any
occasion.
At the head of the conduit, two fields* lengths from the house,
is a ruined arch, apparently of Early Norman architecture. As
this appears to be almost the only existing remnant of any building
connected with the old Priory, and is likely soon to be demolished,
a photograph was taken of it, and is here reproduced.
After viewing the moat, the remains of an old wall, and the old
tithe-bam, built entirely of oak, and one of the largest bams in
England, the house was entered, and Mr. Sworder pointed out the
arches in the cellar, an old arch at the entrance to one of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Tninx. Herts Nat. nisi. S(>c.. Vol. VIII, Plate VII.
The Wymondley Chestnut.
Ruined Arch, Wymondley Priory.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94. xxxvii
bedrooms, the old oak panelling, and the enonnous stack of chimneys
with the passage which he had had cut through the middle of it a
few years ago.
On leaving the Priory a vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. and
Mrs. Sworder for their kind attention.
Mr. Ransom then led the way to the site of the Eoman buildings
and cemetery adjoining Great Wymondley Church, and gave some
particulars of an old enclosure of about twenty acres which once
existed here. It was to be traced, he said, by a bank which
encircles it, and it was probably given to a distinguished Roman
soldier on which to retire. Some years ago he excavated at one
comer of the estate, and found ample evidence of a Roman settle-
ment. Amongst other things he discovered the cemetery and the
rubbish-heap, from the former of which he obtained about forty
urns, and from the latter from twenty to thirty Roman coins and a
variety of culinary and other articles.
Great Wymondley Church was then entered ; it now presents
but few features of mterest, except the rood stairs.
A walk of nearly two miles brought the party to the clay pits
near Hitchin Hill, where Mr. William Hill, F.G.8., gave an
account of his researches, which led him to the conclusion that
a large lake once existed at this spot. Overlying the Chalk, he
said, were beds of stony clay, sand, and gravel, deposited during
the Glacial period ; the gravel was evidently deposited by water
running with considerable velocity, and on the top of it was
a fresh-water deposit laid down under very still water, and he
concluded that it was the bed of a lake. Its extent to the west
was probably a quarter of a mile, to the north and east its limit
was defined by a boss of chalk distant a third of a mile, and it
probably extended a greater distance to the south-west, though
there was no evidence of its continuation in that direction. He
had found a great number of shells in this lake-bed, all being
fresh-water forms and of species stUl living in lakes and ponds.
An examination of the sandy loam under the microscope had
disclosed the presence of the seeds or spores of a fresh- water plant
iChara), and of the minute valves of four species of water-flea
Dapknta). One species was thought to have been extinct, but it
had been discovered by Dr. Brady living in lochs in the north of
Scotland. This deposit passes down into a black calcareous loam,
again with shells, and with teeth of the elephant, which must have
been fairly abundant, bones and teeth of the bear, bones of the
rhinoceros, and antlers of a large stag, these relics being now in
the possession of Mr. W. Ransom. Evidence that pre-historic man
must have considered Hitchin to be a very eligible position for
a residence existed in the number of worked flints which are found
in the clay. The implements — rudely-shaped axes, knives, and
scrapers — belong to the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age, and form the
earliest record of the existence of man upon the earth.
The meeting was very pleasantly brought to a conclusion with
a visit to Pairfield, Hitchin, the residence of Mr. Ransom, who
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
XXXVm PROCEEDUTGS,
provided tea for the party, which, by the accession of members of
the Hitchin Natural History Club, had more than doubled its
numbers. Here Mr. T. B. Blow and Mr. Henry Groves showed
some rare plants which they had just gathered in the neighbour-
hood, including Trifolium ochroleucon, Huds. ; CEnanthe Lachenaliiy
Gmel. ; Bulhocastanum Zinnaiy Schur. ; Orohanche majors L.
(parasitical on Cmtauria scabiosa) ; Samolus Valerandiy L. ; Carex
iepidocarpa, Tausch. ; and Phleum phalaroides, Koel. The (Enanthe,
SamoltM, and Phleum are the rarest of these. The localities in
which liey grow in the neighbourhood of Hitchin will be found
in Pryor*s * Flora of Hertfordshire.'
Mr. . Ransom has a fine collection of antiquities, which were
examined with much interest, especially a case of Phoenician glass
at least 2,500 years old; Roman pottery and coins found in the
neighbourhood ; and a large collection of implements of the Palajo-
lithic. Neolithic, and Bronze Ages.
Before the party separated a vote of thanks was accorded to
Mr. Ransom for his hospitality and the trouble he had taken
to make the meeting a complete success.
Field MEEnNO, 13th Octobek, 1894.
ALDBUEY AND ASHRIDGE PARK.
The members, who numbered more than at any previous fungus
foray of the Society, assembled at Tring Station at half -past ten,
and walked through the village of Aldbury and up the slopes
of Moneybury Hill to the Bridgewater Monument, commencing the
collection of fungi in the village, on an old tree near the pond, and
being busily at work all the way. Some then walked to Little
Gaddesden for lunch ; others who had brought it with them partook
of it by the Monument ; and while the most enthusiastic fungologists
prosecuted their investigations in the immediate neighbourhood,
others went farther afield, walking through the Avenue, about two
miles in length, to Ashridge House, and returning by a more
circuitous route through the Park and over the Common, searching
for fungi all the way. With the exception of one member, who
had to leave by an earlier train than the rest, for Luton by way of
Leighton, all had tea together at the "Greyhound" in Aldbury,
and then walked to Tring Station for the 4.61 train for Watford,
St. Albans, and other places.
The meeting was under the direction of Mr. Hopkinson, and the
fungi which were collected were determined by Mr. George Massee,
of Kew ; Mr. James Saunders, of Luton, recoiding the Mycetozoa.
The following is a list of the fungi recorded by Mr. Massee. It
comprises 185 species, of which 65 are for the first time recorded
for Hertfordshire. To these an asterisk (*) is afiixed. The rare
species, 4 in number, are indicated by an obelisk (f), and the edible
species by a double dagger (J).
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1893-94.
XX XIX
Htmsnomtcetes.
AgaiicQS (Amanita) phalloides, Ft,
„ „ mappa, Batsch,
y, ,f muscarius, L.
,, f, pantherinus, DC.
„ ,, rubesceus, Pert.X
,, ,, spissQg, Fr.
,, ,, vaginatns, Bull.X
„ (Lepiota) procerus, Scop.X
„ ,, rachodes, Vitt.X
,, „ graeilentus, Kromb*
„ „ Badhami, 3.#^r.*J
,, ,, hispidus, Zasch.*
,, ,, clypeolariua, Bull,
,, „ cnstatuB, Fr.
„ „ carcharius, Fers,
yy ,y granulosus, Baisch.
y, (ArmillariiiB) melleus, Vahl.X
,, „ ramentaceuB, Bull,
,, „ mucidus, Fr J
,, (Tricholoma) equestris, X.
„ „ portentosus, Fr.
y, ,y flaTo-bnuineus, Fr.
,, „ albo-bnmneus, Fr.
„ ,, rutilans, Schaf.
,, „ imbricatus, Fr.
,, „ yaccinuB, iV».*
,, ,, terrens, Sehaff.
,y „ aaponaceus, Fr.
,y yy sulpbureus, Bull.
,, ,, bufonius, Fers,
„ „ albus, Sehaff.
„ „ personatus, Fr. {
yy „ nudus, Bull.X
yy ,, grammopodius,^M//.*
„ „ melaleucuB, Fers.X
„ ,, sordidus, Fr.*
y y (Clitocybe) nebularis, Batsoh . X
,, „ ciavipes, Fr.
„ „ odorus, Fr.X
,y „ phyllophilus, Fr.
,y ,y pitnyophilus, Fr.
y, „ canmcans, Fr.
y, „ dealbatns, Sow,
,, „ gallinaceuB, Scop,
„ „ lumosuB, Fera.*
„ y, infundibuliformis,
Sehaff.
„ „ ^vufl, Fera*
,, „ inversus, Scop.*
„ „ ericetorum. Bull.*
„ „ cyathiformis, Fr.
„ ,, ditopus, Fr.
„ ,, fragrans, ^otr.^
,, „ laccatus, Scop.
„ „ Sadleri, Berk.* t
„ (Collybia) radicatus, Behl,
„ „ platyphyllus, Fr.*
ty „ maculatus, A. ^ S.
,, „ butryaceus, Bull.
„ ,, hariolorum, Bull.*
Agaricus (Collybia) confluens, Fers.
,, cirrhatus, Schum.*
„ tuberoaus, Bull,
,, nitellinus, Fr.»
,, succineus, Sehaff*
,, esculentus, Jacq.* X
yy dryophilus, Bull,
„ rancidus, Fr.
,, ozes, fr.*t
(Mycena) pelianthinus, Fr.
„ efegans, Fen.*
,, purus, P<pf».
„ pseudo-puruB, Cke.*
,y lineatus. Bull,
y, luteo -albus, Bolt.
,, flavo-albus, Fr.
,, ruffosus, Fr,
„ galericulatus, Scop.
,, polygrammus, ^u//.
,, alcalinus, Fr.
„ tenuis, Bolt,
„ stanneus, J'V.*
„ filopes, Bull.
,, beematopus, iVj«.
„ sanguinoleutus,
A. and S.
„ galopus, Fr,
,, epipterygius, Scop.
„ discopus, i^J.*
,, corticoK Schum.
(Ompbalia) {)yxidatus, Bull.
,, rusticus, Fers.
,, muralis, Sow.*
,, umbelliferus, X.
(Pleurotus) lignatilis, Fers.
,, ostreatus, /<w?^.
,, limpidus, Fr.*
,, applicatus, Baisch.*
,, cmoneus, P(pr».*
rVolvaria) medius, Fr.*
(Pluteus) cervinus, Scop,
,, nanus, Fers.
(Entoloma) sinuatus, Fr,
,, sericellus, Fr.
„ sericeus, Bull.
,, nidorosus, Pr.
(Clitopilus) prunulus, Scop.X
,, undatus, Fr.*
(Leptonia) lampropus, Fr.
„ euchrous, Fers,* t
„ cbloropolius, Fr.*
(Nolanea) pascuus, Pw*.
(Eccilia) atropunctus, Fers.
(Claudopus) depluenSj^a^ArA.*
,, variabilis, Fers.*
(Pholiota) erebius, Fr,*
„ togularis, Bull.*
„ radicosus, Bull,
„ squarrosus, Jft<//.
,, spectabilis, Fr.
(Inocybe) cincinnatus, Fr.*
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
xl
PROCEEDINGS,
Agaricus (Inocybe) pyriodorus, Pert,
,, „ lacerus, JPr.*
„ ,, fastipiatus, Schaff.*
„ „ Clarkii, ^. ^ JJr.*
,, ,, geophyllus, Sow.
„ (Hebeloma) fastibilis, Fr.
,, ,, nudipes, Fr.
,, (Flammula) lentus, Pera.
,, ,, spumosus, Fr.^
,, ,, scambus, />.♦
,, (Naucoria) cerodes, Fr.^
,, (Galera) tener, Sehoiff,
,, ,, hypnonim, Balseh.
,, (Psalliota) augustus, Fr*X
,, ,, arvensis, Schceff.*X
,, ,, pratenflis. Hchaff^X
,, (Stropharia) roniginosiis, C(ur^
,, ,, squamosus Fr.
,, (Hypholoma) pvrotrichus,
Hohnsk.*
„ „ velutiniw, Per a.
,, (Panffiolus) retirugis, Batsch.*
„ (Psathyrella) pronus, Fr.*
Coprinus atramentarius, Fr, {
,, comatus, i^r. J
CortioaritiB balteatus. Fr*
„ largus, Fr.
,, ocliroleucus, Schasff.
„ lepidopus, Cke.*
,, paleaceus, Fr.
Paxillus involutus, Batach.
Hygropborus aromaticus. Berk,*
,, pratensis, Pera.X
,, niveus, Scop.X
,, nitratus, Pa-a.*
Lactarius ntilis, Weinm.* X
„ blennius, Fr.
„ deliciosus, X.* J
,, belms, Fr.*
,, Tolemus, ^-.^ J
Russula nigricans, Fr.
„ rubra, />•.
,, vesca, Fr.X
„ barl®, Quelet.*f
Cantharellus cibarios, Fr.X
Marasmius peronatus, BoUon.
„ oreades, Fr.X
Boletus scaber. Fr.X
,, laricinus. Berk.
Polyporus velutinus, Fr.*
„ versicolor, Fr.
,f sanguinolentus, A. ^ S.^
,, vaporarius, Fr.
Corticium comedens, Fr.
Stereura hirsutum, Fr.
Clavaria fra^filis, Eolmak.X
„ fusiformis. Sow.* J
„ grisea. Per a.
Gastromtcbtbs.
Pballus impudicus, Grer.*
Lycoperdon saccatum, Vahl.
,, excipuliforme. Scop.*
DiSCOMYCETBS.
Rbytisma maximum, Fr.*
Phacidium coronatura, Fr.*
Peziza granulata, Bull.
„ luteo-nitens, B. ^ Br.*
„ bemispherica, Wigg.*
Helotium sruginosum, Fr.
"In looking over the above list,'* Mr. Massee remarks, "three
points appear to be very pronounced: (1) the large number of
species collected; (2) the very large proportion of species with
white spores; (3) the large number of perfectly safe, edible
species — 31 — each having its own peculiar flavour and aroma."
A very rare and beautiful species — Agaricus {Leptonia) euchrous,
Pers. — ^was found by Miss Daisy "Weall. It has only once before
been detected in Britain.
Mr. James Saunders records the finding of the following
species : — Comatricha ptdchella^ Bab. ; Trichia contorta, Ditm.,
var. incompteua ; and Arcyria incamata, Pers.
The weather was fine, the country beautiful, and the foray the
most successful one the Society has held.
Mr. Massee desires to point out that, however numerous the
species collected in the autumn may be, no fairly complete list
of the fungi of the county can be made unless those which are
to be met with throughout the year are recorded.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SEssioir 1894-95. xli
Obdixaet Meeting, 27th N'ovembee, 1894, at Watford.
Arthur Stradling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Miss Adams, St. Peter's House, St. Alhans, and Mr. Xoel
Heaton, Sans Souci, AVatford, were elected Members of the
Society.
Mr. Cecil Braithwayt, Overbury, Watford; Mr. W. J. Hardy,
F.S.A., Milton Cottage, St. Albans; Mr. William HoUoway,
Amcot, Watford ; Mr. Edmund L. Johnson, Heathdene, Watford ;
Dr. Arthur King, Belmont, Watford; Mr. W. Eonald Mackay,
Shirley House, Watford; Mr. W. Metcalfe, Woodford Koad,
Watford; Mr. Edwin Spurr, Femlea, Westland Eoad, Watford;
and Mrs. Wood, Woodside, Leavesden, Watford, were proposed for
membership.
The following lecture was delivered : —
** Herbert Spencer : a Sketch of his Life and Work." By
William R. Hughes, F.L.S., of Birmingham.
The lecture was illustrated by a large number of photographs
shown by means of the oxy-hydrogen lantern.
Ordinary Meeting, 28th December, 1894, at Watford.
Arthur Stradling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.
Mr. Cecil Braithwayt, Mr. W. J. Hardy, F.S.A., Mr. William
HoUoway, Mr. Edmund L. Johnson, Dr. Arthur King, Mr. Bonald
Mackay, Mr. William Metcalfe, Mr. Edwin Spurr, and Mrs. Wood,
were elected Members of the Society.
Mr. Alan Fairfax Crossman, St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted, was
proposed for membership.
The following papers were read : —
1. ** Report on the Conferences of Delegates to the British
Association at Oxford in 1894." By John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.E.Met.Soc.
Having acted as your delegate to the Oxford meeting of the
British Association, it is my duty to bring before the Society the
various subjects which were discussed at the Conferences of
Delegates of the Corresponding Societies. The Conferences were
held on the 9th and 14th of August, the first Conference being
devoted to the subject of Local Museums, and the second to the
consideration of the work of the sectional Committees of the
Association, or Committees of Eesearch.
Professor B. Meldola, F.R.S., presided at each Conference. All
the members of our Society who are on the Corresponding Societies
Committee were present at the first Conference. They are Sir
John Evans. Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. Topley, Mr. W. Whitaker,
and myself. At the second were present Mr. Symons, Mr.
Whitaker, and myself.
VOL. VIII. — part vin. D
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Xlii PEOCEEDINGS,
FiEST Conference.
Local Museums. — The discussion on Local Museums, to which
the first Conference was devoted, was opened by Mr. Cuthbert
Peek, who dealt with the subject under the following headings : —
1 . Methods of registration and cataloguing.
2. The protection of specimens from injury and dust.
3. The circulation of specimens and type-collections for
educational purposes.
4. Central referees for nomenclature and classification.
5. The most satisfactory methods of making museums attractive.
6. Museum lectures and demonstrations.
7. The relations between museums and County Councils.
1. Methods of Registration and Cataloguing. — ^Having examined
several systems before arranging a small general museum of his
own, Mr. Peek came to the conclusion that for small museums the
card catalogue was the most convenient, on account of the esise
with which changes and additions could be made. Sectional letters
distinguished the various classes of objects. Each specimen when
received had a number allotted to it under the letter assigned to
the section. In order that the number might remain attached
to the specimen, he painted the letter and number on the specimen
with red or white paint, and gave them when dry a coat of oil
varnish. When practicable it was a good thing to paste a photo-
graph showing the locality at which the object was found at the
back of the card. Labels were often displaced by the careless
cleaner, but if the exact dimensions of a specimen, with a rough
outline of it, were entered on the back of the card, identification
would always be possible.
2. The Protection of Specimens from Injury and Bust.— On this
subject it was necessary to remind the delegates that every closed
case was practically acted upon by changes in the pressure of
the atmosphere (in the same way as the cistern of a mercurial
barometer), and that it drew in or gave out air and dust with
every change of pressure. Professor Miall, at the Yorkshire
College, had a rectangular hole cut in the top of each case and
this was covered with damiette. This filters the air passing in.
He (Mr. Peek) felt inclined to use a tube filled with cotton- wool
for this purpose. It must be remembered that enough air should
be admitted at the authorized entrance to prevent supplies from
being sucked in through the inevitable joints and cracks elsewhere.
3. The Circulation of Specimens and Type- Collections for Educational
Purposes. — The importance of educating the eye was now generally
recognized, and the London scientific societies are more and more
introducing the optical lantern at their evening meetings. The
advantage of the circulation of loan collections illustrating the
subjects taught in elementary schools was therefore obvious. At
Liverpool a system had been elaborated by which loan collections
were prepared and circulated among a large number of schools.
Experience had shown that the collections should be arranged ia
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95. xliii
cabinets, each containing some special class of objects, such as
food-products, woods, etc. Those wishing to organize a plan for
circulations of this kind should consult a paper by Mr. J. Chard
in the Report of the Museums Association for 1 890.
The educational advantages of a museum were much increased
by a liberal use of pictorial illustrations placed as near as possible
to the objects illustrated. In the case oi minute objects drawings
on a larger scale were of the highest value, while models and casts
were often of the utmost service. Labels should be clear, and
should indicate the most important points in plain language. When
specimens could be replaced without difficulty, a certain amount
of handling might be permitted. It was most desirable that over-
crowding should be avoided, and that the utmost care should be
taken in the selection of type-specimens. Much economy of space
would result from the adoption of an American invention which
he would briefly describe. The side of the cabinet, instead of
having one slide for each drawer, has a series of slides, one inch
apart, all the way up the side, the bottom of each drawer having
a tongue to fit into one of these slides. It was clear from this that
the drawers might be made in multiples of an inch and arranged
in any order desired.
4. Central Refirees for Nomenclature and Classification, — One of
the greatest difficulties which the average curator of a small
museum had to deal with was the nomenclature of the various
specimens under his charge. An organization of specialists who
would for a small fee allow specimens to be forwarded to them
for identification would bo of the greatest possible value. Certain
abstruse questions might not even then be easy to answer ; but if
nine-tenths of our museum specimens could be accurately catalogued
a great step in the right direction would be taken.
5. The most satisfactory Method of making Museums attractive. —
To those who know the museums at South Kensington, or some
of the equally well-arranged local museums, this heading might
seem unnecessary. But many present might be able to call to
mind some collection in a country town containing many most
valuable local specimens, the very existence of which was unknown
to the majority of the inhabitants. This state of things was yearly
becoming rarer ; but many persons could point out some museum
almost as much fossilized as the fossils it contained, with labels
either illegible from age or invisible from displacement. Those
who casually entered such museums seldom revisited them. It
was most desirable that the English as well as the Latin name
of a specimen should be given. Much might be done to allow of
comparisons between creatures of different families or genera.
Thus, at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, the
skeletons of a man and of a horse in the attitude of running had
recently been placed the one in front of the other, so that the
relations of the two, bone for bone, could be distinctly seen. The
surgical, ordinary, and veterinary names of the bones were added
throughout.
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Xliv PE0CEEDING8,
6. Mmeum Lectures and Demonstrations, — While the great value
of case-to-case explanations was invariably admitted, the difficulty
attending any attempt to make a museum demonstration useful to
any large number of persons was equally obvious. One most
experienced demonstrator had stated that the largest number of
persons who can receive real benefit from a case-to-case demon-
stration is about a dozen, and had recommended that the lecture,
illustrated by specimens and lantern-slides, should be given in
an ordinary lecture-room, and a demonstration afterwards in the
museum to the smaller number seeking further information. In
any case it was most desirable that the demonstrator should be
placed on a temporary stand, so that he might see and be seen
by his audience.
7. The Relations between Museums and County Councils. — It
having always appeared to him that demonstrations in museums
should take a very prominent part in technical education, especially
in rural districts, he had been surprised that so little assistance
had been given in aid of local collections by County Councils. In
order to ascertain what had been done in that direction he had
sent out a circular to County Council technical education committees,
and found that local museums and free libraries had been assisted
only in nine cases. The County Council of Cumberland had been
the most liberal, having made a grant of £600 per annum during
the last three years for the purpose of aiding the Corporation of
Carlisle to erect a museum, free library, and art school. A grant
had also been made to a free library at Whitehaven for the purchase
of text-books for the use of students at technical instruction classes,
and a grant of £200 per annum had been given to the Local Board
of Millom in aid of the free library and technical school at that
town. In Westmoreland a grant of £100 had been made to
the Kendal Free Library, and a similar sum had been given for
the purchase of books on scientific subjects at other centres in the
county. In Northumberland 50 per cent, of the cost of technical
books for village and other libraries had (under certain conditions)
been defrayed. At Leeds grants had been made to the Free Public
Library Committee of the Corporation for the purchase of pictures
and books. In Hertfordshire money had been given to free
libraries for the purchase of technical books, and in Montgomery
grants had been made in two cases. In Surrey no aid had been
given to free libraries, but it was proposed to found a museum in
connection with buildings for technical education, and a reference
library. The London County Council had a proposal to aid a
certain museum under consideration; and in Dorsetshire the
museums at Poole, Dorchester, and Sherborne had all received aid.
From some counties no information had yet been received, but
enough had been stated to show that there was no insuperable
obstiK^le to the application of money intended for technical
education to the development of museums. A leading object
with the Government was the development of local activity,
and he felt convinced that any grants made to local museums
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SESSION 1894-95. xlv
and free libraries would tend more than anything else to further
that object.
A considerable amount of discussion followed, the principal question
considered being the legality of grants being made to museums
by County Councils. It was elicited that, although in some cases
aid had thus been directly given, it was only strictly legal to
make grants in aid of lectures and demonstrations in museums,
or for the purchase of technical books, apparatus for lectures, and
specimens required to increase the efficiency of the lectures. It
will thus be seen how advisable it is in establishing a provincial
museum to provide a lecture-room and arrange for lectures to be
given. Sir John Evans doubted whether grants to museums would
be permitted to pass by the Government auditors, though a grant
of technical books might be allowed, and he said that inquiries
should be made to the Science and Art Depaitment at JSouth
Kensington as to the legality of any proposed grant for the
purchase of specimens to illustrate lectures. Mr. H. Coates stated
that a large addition was being built to the Perth Museum, and
a grant had been obtained from the County Council on condition
that specimens suitable for agricultural teaching should be provided.
These specimens would be used for lectures and demonstrations.
Otherwise, they had been advised they could not obtain the grant.
Some useful hints on the management, etc., of museums were
also given in the course of the discussion. Sir John Evans recom-
mended the American system of card- catalogue, a perforated card
through which a wire passed, so that the cards could not be
disturbed. He spoke of the difficulty of keeping dust out of
cabinets, for they exhale air whilst the day is warm, and inhale
it, with dust, in the cooler evening. As regards referees for
nomenclature and classification, he said that any curator might
consult the keepers of the various departments of the British
Museum at South Kensington or at Bloomsbury, with a certainty
of receiving prompt and valuable assistance. Eeferring to the
obliteration of labels, the Rev. 0. P. Cambridge and Dr. Garson
recommended for preparations in spirit that labels should be
written in pencil on good paper and be placed inside the glass jars.
The only other question which arose was as to the difficulty
of deciding upon what specimens were worthless and should be
got rid of, and Sir John Evans thought that the opinion of the
secretary or curator of a museum ought to be deemed sufficient.
The following resolution was proposed by Sir Douglas Galton,
seconded by Dr. Brett, and carried : —
"That in the opinion of this Conference it is desirable that
local natural history societies, and those in charge of local museums,
should place themselves in communication with the Technical
Instruction Committee of the county or borough in which they
are placed, with the view of obtaining pecuniary grants towards
extending technical knowledge by means of lectures or by demon-
strations in museums."
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Xlri PEOCEEDHTGS,
Second Conterenck.
The principal subjects brought before the second conference
were as follows : — Meteorological Photography, Earth-Tremors,
the Pollution of Air in Towns, the Erosion of the Sea Coast,
Underground Waters, Erratic Blocks, Geological Photographs,
the Teaching of Geography in Schools, and the Ethnographical
Survey of Great Britain.
Meteorological FJwtography . — The work of this Committee has
already been brought before our Society by its Secretary, Mr. A. W.
Clay den, in a lecture delivered at St. Albans in 1891, to the
report of which in our * Transactions ' (Vol. VI, p. 162) reference
should be made. At this Conference Mr. Clayden stated that
a sufficient number of photographs of clouds had now been received,
but he would be grateful for photographs of lightning showing
anything abnormal ; and also for photographs showing the results
of whirlwinds or other exceptional occurrences.
Earth- Tremor 8. — We are scarcely likely to assist this Committee,
the investigation of earth-tremors requiring an instrument costing
at least £60. That best suited for the purpose, and adopted by
this Committee, is the bifilar pendulum invented by Mr. Horace
Darwin, who exhibited one to the Conference and explained its
construction and use. It is not affected by certain rapid, com-
plicated movements which take place during an earthquake, or
by the slight tremors caused by passing carts or trains. The
movements which it will measure are such as would make a factory
chimney or a vertical post fixed in the ground lean over on one
side. Extremely small movements of this kind can be measured
by it and recorded on photographically-prepared paper. An account
of the instrument was given in * Nature' of 12th July, 1894, and
also in the * Report of the British Association* for 1893, p. 291.
Mr. G. J. Symons, Chairman of the Committee, stated that
pulsations recorded by one of these instruments in a coal-mine at
Newcastle- on-Tyne had been traced to the gradual settlement of
the ground in consequence of the removal of the coal, and to the
beating of the sea- waves on the coast. On one occasion the pulsations
shown were found to have been produced by an earthquake in
Greece. The Committee wished to have several of these instru-
ments established in different parts of the British Isles, in order to
make sure that not merely local phenomena were being recorded, but
the great general phenomena of the earth's crust, such as changes
going on in connection with faults in geological strata, and records
of the alterations in the earth's crust caused by tidal waves.
Pollution of Air in Towns, — ^For the last three or four years
Dr. G. H. Bailey has been examining the air of towns in order
to ascertain the extent of its pollution, and he gave an account
of his investigations in Manchester. It was a question, he said,
of much practical importance, for it heid been found that the
death-rate was highest when the air was most polluted. The
amount of sulphur-compounds present in the air was a measure
of the extent of its pollution. The amount of sunlight in towns
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SESSION 1894-95. xlvii
•was also being investigated, and it had been found that about
50 per cent, of the sunlight was cut off by the smoke of a town,
the diminution of light in the centre of a large town amounting
to about 75 per cent., and in the suburbs to about 25 per cent.,
as compared with the amount of light in the open country. The
co-operation of members of the Corresponding Societies in more
rural districts would be sought when the methods of investigation
were more perfect. Prof. Meldola remarked upon the value of
lichens as indicating the purity of the air. Thciy were disappearing
from the tree-trunks in Epping Forest, it being too near London
for them to flourish.
Coast JErosioHy which was next dealt with, is not a subject
within the province of our Society.
Underground Waters. — The question of the circulation of water
in the Chalk of Hertfordshire has frequently been brought before
our Society, and the nature of the information required by the
Underground Waters Committee will be found in our * Trans-
actions,' in my paper on '* Water and Water-supply" (Vol. VI,
p. 136). At this Conference Mr. Whitaker stattid that it was
intended to give the substance of the eighteen annual reports of
the Committee in a single volume, for which he hoped the Corre-
sponding Societies would subscribe. The cost of the book would
not exceed 10«.
Erratic Blocks. — For information on the work of the Erratic
Blocks Committee reference should be made to a paper by
Mr. H. George Fordham in our * Transactions ' (Vol. I, p. 163).
The work of the Committee is now drawing to a close, but
there is still plenty of scope for observers in our county. The
work required to be done is to record the position, height above
the sea, lithological character, size, and origin of our erratic
blocks or boulders, to report other matters of interest connected
with them, and to take measures for their preservation.
Geological Photographs. — The work of the Geological Photo-
graphs Committee has also been brought before our Society, in
a paper by me which is published in our * Transactions ' (Vol. VI,
p. 49). I regret that out of 1055 photographs which the Secretary
of the Committee has received, there are only a few from our
county, all of which have been taken by myself. The collection
of photographs will be deposited in the Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn Street, London, where it will be accessible
for inspection. I have duplicates for the Society of the photo-
graphs which I have contributed to this collection, and should
be glad to receive photographs from others, in duplicate, one
copy for this collection and one for our Society.
The teaching of Geography in Schools is not exactly a subject
to engage the attention of provincial societies, but it is one in
which some members of such societies may help by their influence.
Mr. Sowerbutts said that it was disgraceful that geography was
so badly taught, or sometimes utterly neglected, in the schools of
a coimtry which had territory in every part of the world. He
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Xlviii PEOCEEDINGS,
also advocated the institution of School MttseumSy and stated
that much progress had been made in some of the primary schools
by the institution of museums. A beginning has been made at
the headquarters of our Society, the Watford Endowed Schools,
and at the St. Albans Grammar School. There are also museums
in some other schools in our county, as at Haileybury College.
Mhnographical Survey. — The Chairman of the Committee
appointed to organize an Ethnographical Survey of the United
Kingdom, Mr. E. W. Brabrook, remarked that the Corresponding
Societies had, through their delegates, shown much interest in
this question, and that many had given assistance. During the
past year the list of villages at which ethnographical observations
might suitably be made had been considerably increased; there
were now 367, a much larger number than they had expected
would be suggested. He then gave an account of how their work
was progressing in England, "Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and the
Isle of Man. He had been told that the instructions with regard
to photographing were too minute; but these instructions had
been drawn up by Mr. Francis Gal ton with reference to his system
of composite photographs, and any departure from them would
make the application of that system comparatively difficult. At
the same time they did not wish to lose any photographs which
might be useful, even if, in their case, the instructions had not
been followed.
With this subject the work of the Conference was brought to
a close, and the Chairman expressed the hope that the delegates
would bring its proceedings under the notice of their respective
Societies. The custom of the Essex Field Club was to ask their
delegate to send in a report of what had been done, and to publish
it as soon as possible in the * Essex Naturalist,' and he hoped that
other Societies would act in a similar manner.
2. Note on a Tree- Wasp's Nest at Herga, Watford, By Daniel
Hill. {Transactions, Vol. VIII, p. 203.)
Mr. Hill exhibited the nest, which he has had mounted in a case.
The President exhibited and described a series of photographs
showing the feeding of a young Boa constrictor (the first ever
taken) ; also a photograph of a large reticulated python at the
Zoological Gsirdens.
Okdiwary Meeting, 29th Jaktjakt, 1895, at Watford.
Professor John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., etc., Vice-
President, in the Chair.
Mr. Alan Fairfax Grossman was elected a Member of the
Society.
The following papers were read : —
1. '* The Advantages of a Supply of Soft Water for the Town
of Watford." By Arthur King, M.B., CM., D.P.H. (Transactions,
Vol. VIII, p. 116.)
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SESSION 1894-95. xlix
2. "The Relative Advantages of Hard and Soft Water, with
Special Reference to the Supply of Watford." By John Hopkinson,
P.L.8., F.G.8., F.R.Met.Soc. {Transact ions, Vol. VUI, p. 101.)
A discussion ensued, of which the following is an abstract : —
The Chairman (Professor Attfield) said that he need scarcely
remind the members of the Society that our country was often
called Albion because of the whiteness of its cliffs, which served
to draw their attention to the facts that limestone, either chalk,
or the harder varieties of limestone, constitutes the greater part
of our island, and that falling rain, always dissolving a certain
amount of chalk, they got hard water; hence that every town
on chalk or limestone was immensely interested in the possible
artificial softening of its water. Watford, being directly on
the Chalk, was not the least interested. Its water had a very
considerable degree of hardness, and therefore Watford could well
discuss the question as to whether its natural supply of hard
water should be softened or not. To begin with, they must
go to experts to know something about the softening of the
water, and to know something about the cause of the hardness.
Secondly, they must know whether the hardness could be
reduced. Thirdly, how? And fourthly, at what cost? Dr.
King and Mr. Hopkinson had given what in his humble opinion
was a very good risumi of all these data, and for their carefulness
and the time they had occupied in doing that, and the judgment
they had evinced in the doing of it, he thought, and ho was sure
they all would think, that they deserved their thanks. As to
the questions which the inhabitants of Watford would look
to scientific men to give them information upon, in order that
they might discuss them from their economical and financial point
of view, the first had been answered. It was possible for the
water to be softened, and the chemistry of the matter generally
was not a question for discussion at that meeting ; it had all been
settled long ago, and was now being practically carried out in
such towns as Canterbury and Southampton, and in some seven
or eight other prominent towns, to say nothing of the work which
was done in the Colne Valley Waterworks close by. A question
which had been put to him within the last three or four days was,
** What do we all mean by hard and soft water?" That had
been partly answered that night as to the cause of the hardness
and softness. Professor Attfield then alluded to the difference
felt between hard and soft water in washing the hands, and said
that another question which had been put to him as a chemist
for the hundredth time was a question relating to the difference
between lime and chalk. He was afraid that unless the inquirers
had the rudiments of chemistry within them nothing would
make the thing perfectly clear. Having explained the mingling
together of carbonic acid and lime in the formation of chalk, he
pointed out that there was only one practical way of softening
the water, as had been shown by the authors of the papers. He
supposed the town would look to its engineer to explain whether
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1 PEOCEEDINGS,
it would be better to get out the deposit by mere subsidence or by
means of filters. Different methods were adopted in different
towns, and he thought the question was one of local conditions,
local circumstances, and rate of wages. With regfird to disad-
vantages in the softening of water, he would only remark that
in softening water they were getting within measurable distance
of a water that would dissolve lead, and might possibly, though
not prohably, be jumping out of the frying-pan into the fire,
or, to coin a more appropriate figure, might tumble from a cliff of
chalk into a hot cauldron of lead. He then spoke of the effect
of soft and hard water on tea, giving his opinion in favour of soft
water so far as economics were concerned; and so far as boilers
were concerned, and for cooking no doubt the advantages were
greatly in favour of soft water over hard water. Then, with
regard to the question of health. Dr. King had told them that
doctors disagreed. Speaking of the formation of bone and sinew.
Professor Attfield said that he did not think such a question need
be taken into consideration with reference to this matter, because
it was not lime, the partner of chalk, but it was phosphate of
lime, that had to do with the formation of bone. And modem
discoveries had shown that the substance in vegetables which
enabled us to build up bone was not by any means always
phosphate of lime, but what was well known to medical men,
phosphate of potash, which was the substance they would find
in vegetable juices. He then pointed out that the question was
primarily a chemical one, and secondly a medical one, and it
remained for that meeting to discuss the question from a common-
sense point of view founded on science. He hoped that the
townsmen of Watford would think, with the Natural History
Society, that this was a scientific matter, that the Society repre-
sented science in Watford, and that the Society had done its
duty in bringing before the town at least some of the scientific
advantages and disadvantages attached to the softening of the
water.
Mr. Blathwatt said that he would hail with pleasure any scheme
which might be brought forward for softening the water. He had
been resident in Watford for lOJ years, and during that period had
had his hot-water pipes and apparatus renewed three times, which
had increased his water-rate at least 100 per cent, per annum.
Mr. Blackburn said he thought that what they had heard that
night should satisfy them that it would be policy to soften the
water in Watford.
Mr. Atbes differed from what Mr. Blathwayt had said. He had
lived in his house 14 years, and his pipes at the present moment
were as clear as when they were put up. He was sure that the
Urban Council would give the matter their careful consideration,
but there were many questions which would have to be considered
before the water could bo softened, and one very important one
was the waste of water. At least one-half or three-fourths of the
water now pumped was wasted.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95. li
Mr. Hill said that he had now resided in his house nearly
1 Oi years, and he had the same boiler and the same pipes which
had been put in at first by Mr. Ay res. He thought the Watford
water was most pleastmt to drink. Soft water, to his mind, was
flat ; there was no life in it.
Mr. VERmi, being asked for his opinion as to the cost of softening
the water, said that he had read Dr. King's figures in the
* Watford Observer,' and he thought that they were accurate.
Dr. King replied, sajring that he thought the matter simply
resolved itself into pounds, shillings, and pence. If it wore cheaper
to soften the water, let them do it. Leaving out the medical
question, or the question of inconvenience, let them consider the
money question, and he believed if they went into the subject
thoroughly they would find that it might put a little on the rates,
but it would save their pockets in other ways. It would certainly
save them a considerable amount in soap, and if they as private
individuals did not use so much as washerwomen, he thought they
ought to consider the washerwomen as well as themselves, and it
would be a considerable saving to them. Another point that he
mentioned in his paper was very important, and that was that they
could not wash clothes clsan in hard water. He differed from
Mr. Hill as to the taste of the water, preferring soft water.
Mr. HoPKiNsoN also replied. He said that he was not aware
that there had been any cases of lead-poisoning where soft water
had been substituted for hard water. He had had no experience
of the taste of softened water, bat he very much preferred such
naturally soft water as a mountainous district usually yields, to
the very hard water supplied to Watford and St. Albans, and he
believed that drinking such soft water was very beneficial to
health.
Professor Attfield remarked that the different experiences with
regard to pipes, etc., being choked up could be easily explained. It
was necessary for water actually to boil before any appreciable
amount of carbonate of lime would be deposited as ** scale."
Doubtless with Mr. Blathwayt the water boiled, and with Mr.
Ayres and Mr. Hill it did not.
Mr. G. H. Wailes and Mr. Thomas Hope were elected auditors
of the accounts for 1894.
Anniveesaey Meeting, 26th Februaet, 1895.
(At Watford.)
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S.,
V.P.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The Report of the Council for 1894, and the Treasurer's Account
of Income and Expenditure, were read and adopted.
George Massee, F.R.M.S., 41 Gloucester Road, Kew, was elected
a Corresponding Member of the Society.
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Hi PBOCEEDINGSy
A letter was read from the President, Mr. Arthur Stradlinp:,
M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., regretting his inability to be present on account
of ill-health, and promising to deliver lus Anniversary Address at
a future meeting of the Society.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., delivered an Address on **The Stone
Age in Hertfordshire.** {Transactions, Vol. VIII, p. 169.)
Stone implements found in Hertfordshire, etc., were exhibited
by the author in illustration of his address.
The following gentlemen were duly elected as the officers and
Council for the ensuing year: —
President.— nemj Seebohm, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Sec.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents,— '?ToiQ9,mT John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
FC.S., F.I.C.; Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D.,
Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A., etc. ; John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S. ;
Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
Treasurer. — John Weall.
Honorary Secretaries. — JohnHopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.,
F.R. Met. Soc. ; F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S.
Librarian. — "W. K. Carter, B.A.
Curator.— k. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.
Other Members.— AUred T. Brett, M.D. ; H. George Fordliam ;
Daniel Hill; Henry Lewis; Edward Mawley, F.R. Met. Soc,
F.R.H.S.; William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.; T. Vaughan Roberts;
Stephen Salter; Frank W. Silvester; Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.;
George Herbert AVailes, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E ; Henry Warner.
The thanks of the Society were accorded to Mr. Ai-thur Stradling
retiring from the office of President; to Mr. Upfield Green, retiring
from the office of Vice-President; and to Mr. A. P. Blathwayt,
Mr. R. B. Croft, and Mr. George Rooper, retiring from the Council.
Repobt of the Council for the Yeae 1894.
The Council of the Hertfordshire I^atural History Society, in
presenting the 2()th Annual Report, may congratulate the members
on the continued prosperity of the Society after an existence of
twenty years. At the same time it may be pointed out that
the number of members who take an active part in the work
of the Society is very small, and has considerably decreased
within the last ten years, not nearly so many members contributing
papers in the second decade of the Society's existence as in
the first. This is not due to exhaustion of material, for the
investigation of the flora and fauna of the county is very far from
completion, and the scope of the Society has lately been much
widened, its objects now including the investigation of the
Ethnology, Pre -Norm an Archaeology, and Topography of Hert-
fordshire, as well as that of its Meteorology, Geology, Botany, and
Zoology, and the study of Physical as well as of Biological Science.
The Council would, therefore, urge upon the members to do
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SESSION 1894-95. liii
all they can to further the ohjects of the Society, by deliverinj:^
lectures, reading papers, or contributing the results of their
investigations relating to the county. In this direction there is
plenty of scope for bibliographical research as well as for original
observation.
During the year thirty-one ordinary members have been electa
and one corresponding member, twelve members have resigned,
thirteen have been removed from the list for non-payment of
subscription for several years, and the Council regrets to have
to record the loss of three members by death — Dr. Duncan 8cott
of Watford, Mr. Robert Smith of Goldings near Hertford (a life-
member), and Mr. William Topley, F.R.8., of Croydon.
Mr. Topley was for more than thirty years on the staff of the
Geological Survey. From 1862 to 1880 he was engaged in field-
work; he was then appointed to superintend the publication of
maps and memoirs at the office of the Geological Survey in
Jenny n Street; and in 1893 he was entrusted with the entire
charge of the office. He was one of our leading authorities on
applied geology, especially agricultural geology and water-supply.
He became a member of our Society in 1892, and had promised
to open the present session with a lecture on Agricultural Geology.
The census of the Society at the end of the years 1893 and 1894
was as follows : —
1893. 1894.
Honorary Members 20 20
Corresponding Member 1
Life Members 51 60
Annual Subscribers 189 193
260 264
Although this shows a numerical increase of only four members,
the effective increase is really seventeen, for in the 1893 census
thirteen members were enumerated who were several years in
arrears with their subscriptions and who were removed from our
list early in 1894.
The following papers or lectures have been read or delivered
at "Watford during the year : —
Jan. 23. — The Lower Micro-organisms and their Relation to Every-day
Life; by D. Harvey Attfield, M.A., M.B., D.P.H.
Feb. 13. — Crystals ana Precious' Stones ; by G. Herbert Wailcs,
Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.
27. — Anniversary Address : A Wonderful Animal ; by the President,
Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
March 20. — The Natural Historj- of the Salmon ; bv Georj^e Rooper, F ZS.
April 17. — Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1893 ; by
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
— Climatological ObserAations taken in Hertfordshire in the year
1893 ; by John Hopkinson.
Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,
in the year 1893 ; by John Hopkinson.
— Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire
during the year 1893 ; by Edward Mawley, F.R. Met. Soc,
F.R.H.S.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
liv PBOCEEDDfGS,
April 17. — Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during the
year 1893 ; by A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.
The Wasp-Visitation of 1893 ; by A. E. Gibbs.
• Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1893 ;
by Henry Lewis.
Nov. 27. — Herbert Spencer: a Sketch of his Life and Work ; by "William
R. Hughes, F.L.S.
Dec. 28. — Report on the Conferences of Delegates to the British Asso-
ciation at Oxford in 1894 ; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G S., etc.
A Tree- Wasp's Nest at Herga, Watford ; by Daniel Hill.
A special meeting was held on the 23rd of January, when certain
alterations in the Rules proposed by the Council were passed. The
revised Rules were issued to the memhers with the February part of
the * Transactions.'
The following Field Meetings were held during the year : —
April 28. — Ayot St. Peter and Ayot St. Lawrence.
May 19. — Brocket Park and Wheathampstead.
26. — Luton, Caddington, and Dunstable.
June 23. — Tring.
30. — Stevenage, the Wjmondleys, and Hitchin.
Oct. 13. — Aldbury and Ashndge Park.
Visits were also made to the British Museum (Natural History),
South Kensington, on the 21st of April, and to the Zoological
Gardens, Regent's Park, on the 16th of June; on each occasion
demonstrations were made hy the President.
The thanks of the Society are due for hospitality kindly afPorded
at the above meetings to the Rev. H. Jephson at Ayot St. Peter;
to Mr. and Mrs. Upton Robins at Delaport, Wheathampstead ; to
the President and Mrs. Stradling at the Zoological Gardens ;
to Mr. A. Macdonald Brown at Beech Grove, Tring ; to Mr. Charles
Sworder at The Priory, Little Wymondley; and to Mr. "William
Ransom at Fairfield, Hitchin.
The seventh volume of the present series of the Society's
* Transactions * has been completed, and the eighth has been
commenced, two parts of each, containing 148 pages and seven
plates, having been published during the year. Three-fourths of
the papers in the seventh volume are essentially local, and the
rest, with two exceptions, have some local bearing. The papers
which give the results of investigations in Hertfordshire are, in
meteorology and phenology the usual annual reports, eight in aU,
a paper on the Climate of Watford, and one on Temperature and
Rainfall at Throcking, each giving the results of ten years'
observations, and a Naturalist's Calendar for Mid-Hertfordshire ; in
botany a paper on the Mycetozoa, with a list of species found
in Herts and Beds, and a list of Hertfordshire Hepaticse ; and in
Zoology notes on the Lepidoptera, the Birds, and the Mammalia
observed in the county. With local allusions there are two geo-
logical papers, one on Ice and the other on Coal, and two zoological
papers, one on Terrestrial British Quadrupeds and the other on
Bats and some other Beasts. One of the two Presidential Addresses
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95.
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Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Ivi
PROCEEDINGS,
in the Yolume, on Francis Bacon, is of local interest ; the other,
on Charles Darwin, though not of local, is of universal interest ;
and the only other paper having no reference to the county is
one, abridged, in the ' Proceedings,' on Man and Ape.
Of the eight plates in the volume, five were produced at the
expense of the Society, two are reprints, and one, the frontispiece,
was presented by your Editor, Mr. Hopkinson. A feature for the
first time introduced is the reproduction of photographs in illus-
tration of the reports of the field meetings, eight of which, taken
by your Editor, are shown on four of the plates.
The Library has been open for the exchange of books on the
first Tuesday of each month from 7 to 9 p.m., and after the
evening meetings of the Society, but the number of members
who have borrowed books has been very small. The Librarian
regrets that the Catalogue is now out of print, but hopes to be
able shortly to prepare a new and revised edition of it. A list of
the numerous accessions during the year will be given in the
* Proceedings.'
Specimens of Mycetozoa have been presented by Mr. James
Saunders, which are of special value as vouchers for his lists of
species in our * Transactions.'
Additions to the Library m 1894.
Presented.
TiTLB.
Australian Association for the Advancement op
Science. Keport of 1st Meeting, Sydney, N.S.W.
1888. 8vo. Sydney, 1889
— . Report of 2nd Meeting, Melbourne, Victoria.
1890. 8vo. Melbourne, 1890
. Report of 3rd Meeting, Christcburch, N.Z. 1891.
8vo. Wellington, N Z., 1891 . .
. Report of 4th Meeting, Hobart, Tasmania. 1892.
8vo. Hobart, 1893
Bacon, Francis. Proficience and Advancement of
Learning. 8vo. London, 1852 ....
Baxendall, J. Borough of Southport. Meteorological
Department. Report of Observations for 1893.
4to. Southport, 1894
British Association por the Advancement op
Science. Report for 1893. (Nottingham.) 8vo.
London, 1894
British Museum (Natural History). General Guide.
8vo. London, 1893
. Guide to the Mineral Gallery. By L. Fletcher.
lb. 1893
. The Student's Index to the Collection of Minerals.
By L. Fletcher, id. 1893
— — . Mineral Department. An Introduction to the
Study of Meteorites By L. Fletcher. Id.
1893
— . . An Introduction to the Study of Minerals.
By L. Fletcher, id. 1894
Donor.
Sir John Evans,
Mr. J, Hopkinson,
The Author.
The Association.
j Ti-usfees of the
[ British Musettm.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95.
Ivii
Title.
British MusErM (Natural History). Department of
(it'olo^ and Palaeontolojtr. Guide to the Collection
of Fossil FishM. By H. Woodward. 2nd ed. lb. 1888.
. Guide to the Department of Geology and Palteon-
tolofiry. Part I. Fossil Mammals and Birds. By
H. Woodward. /A. 1890
. . Part II. Fossil Reptiles, Fishes, and
Invertebrates. By H. Woodward. /*. 1890 .
. Department of Botany. Guide to Sowerby's
Models of British Fungi By W. G. Smith, lb.
1893
. Department of Zoology. Guide to the Shell and
Starfish Galleries. By A. Giinther. 2nd ed. lb,
1888
. . Guide to the Galleries of Reptiles and
Fishes. By A. Giinther. lb. 1893
. . Guide to the Galleries of Mammalia. By
A. Giinther. 4th ed. lb. 1892 .
CuviBR. Baron. The Animal Kingdom With
additional Descriptions by E. GrifHth and
others. Vols, ii-x, and lii-ivi. 8vo. London,
1827-36
. . Supplementary Volume on the Fossils.
By E. Pidgeon. lb. 1830
DiLLER, J. S. Notes on the Geology of the Troad.
{Quart. Journ, OeoL Soe. 1883.) ....
Harrisox, W. J. On the Search for Coal in the South-
east of England 8vo. Birmingham, 1894 .
Johnson, C, and J. E. Sowerby. Ferns of Great
Britain. 8to. London, 1855 ....
. Fern Allies. 8vo. London, 1866
LiNDLEY, John. Ladies' Botany. 3rd ed. Vol. i. 8vo.
London, n. d.
Monck-ton, Claud, Pure Spring Water-supply for
London. Proposed by G. Webster. 4to. London,
1890
MooRB, Thomas. Elements of Botany. 10th ed. Syo.
London, 1865
Natural Science. Vol. It. 8vo. London, 1894
Ormbrod, Eleanor A. Report of Observations of
Injurious Insects, and Common Farm Pests, during
the Year 1893. 8vo. London, 1894
Pbknino, W. H. a Contribution to the Geology of
the Southern Transyaal. (Quart, Joum, Geol. Soe,
18910
Science Gossip. New Series. Vol. i, Nos. 4-10. 8vo.
London, 1894
Symons. G. J. (Ed.) Monthly Meteorological Magazine.
Vol lii. 8vo. London, 1894 ....
Topley, William. On Areas of Apparent UpheaTal.
(Qftart. Joum. Geol, Soe. 1874.) ....
The National Surveys of Europe. (i2<p. Brt't.
A»»tte. for 1884.)
. Report of the Committee on the Erosion of the
Sea Coasts of England and Wales. {Rep. Brit.
Auoe. for 1886.)
. . ( ... for 1888.)
. Gold and Silver: their Geological Distribution
and their Probable Future Production. {Rep, Brit,
Auoe. for 1887.)
Donor.
Trustees of the
Bntish Museum.
Mr, A. R, Gin man.
Mrs, Topley,
Mr, W, Whitaker,
Mr, J, Utipkinson.
Mr, W. Whitaker
Mr. J, Hopktnso'f.
Mr, A. £. Gibbs.
The Authoress,
Mr, jr. Whitaker.
Mr, A, E. Gihbs.
The Editor,
Mrs. Topfey,
TOL. vni.— part vin.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Iviii PK0CEEDING8,
TiTLB. DOXOR.
ToPLEY, William. Geology in its Relation to Hygiene.
{Trans. Sanitary Inst. 1890.) . . . . . Mr. JF. Whitaker.
Whitaker, William. Local Geology from a Sanitary
Standpoint. [Tram. Sanitary Inst. 1892.) . . Ths Author.
. On Maps showing the Area of Chalk available
for Water Supply in the London Basin. (Jb. 1892.|
. On Borings at Culford, Winkfield, Ware, and
Cheshunt. {Quart. Joum. Geol. Soe. 1894.) .
Received in Exchange.
American Museum op Natural History. Bulletin. Vol. v. 8to. New
York, 1893.
. Report for the year 1893. lb. 1894.
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Proceedings.
Vol. viii, No. 1. 8vo. Bath, 1894.
Belfast Naturalists* Field Club. Annual Report and Proceedings.
Series 2, vol. iv, part 1. 8vo. Belfast, 1894.
Birmingham Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. viii, part 2. 8vo.
Birmingham [18941.
. Report. [Session 1892-93.] Jb.
Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. Journal.
Vol. i, No. 1. 8vo. Birmingham, 1894.
Boston (U.S.A.) Society of Natural History. Proceedings. Vol. xivi,
part 1. 8vo. Boston, 1893.
Bristol Naturalists' Society. Proceedings. New Series. Vol. vii, part 3.
8vo. Bristol, 1894.
Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club. Transactions. Vol. i. No. 1.
8vo. Shrewsbury, 1894.
Cardiff Naturalists' Society. Report and Transactions. Vol. ixv, part 2.
8vo. Cardiff, 1894.
CoNCHOLOGY, JOURNAL OF. Vol. vii, Nos. 9-11. 8vo. Loods, 1894.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club. Proceedings for
1892-93. 8vo. Croydon, 1893.
Edinburgh, Botanical Society of. Transactions and Proceedings. Vol. xii,
part 3. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1893.
Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. vii, part 1. 8vo.
Edinburgh, 1894.
Royal Physical Society. Proceedings. Session 1892-93. 8vo.
Edinburgh, 1893.
Essex Field Club. Essex Naturalist. Vol. vii, Nos. 10-12. 8vo. Buckhurst
HiU, 1894.
Glasgow Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol.xxv. 8vo. Glasgow, 1894.
Hampshire Field Club. Papers and Proceedings. Vol. ii, part 3. 8vo.
Southampton, 1894.
London, Geological Society of. Abstracts of the Proceedings. Session
1893-94. 8vo. London, 1894.
. Geologists' Assoclation. Proceedings. Vol. xiii, parts 6-10.
8vo. London, 1894.
. . List of Members, 1894. lb.
. QuBKETT Microscopical Club. Journal. Vol. v, Nos. 34 and 35.
8vo. London, 1894.
. Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal. Vol. xi.
8vo. London, 1894.
The Meteorological Record. Vol. xiii, Nos. 60-52.
Vol. xiv. No. 53. 8vo. London [1894].
Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. New Series. [Vol. vi.]
1894. 8vo. London, 1894.
Manchester Field-Naturalists' and Arch^ologists' Society. Report
and Proceedings for the Year 1893. 8vo. [Manchester] 1894.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95. lix
Manchbbtek Geographical Society. Journal. Vol. ix, Nos. 7-9. Vol. x,
No8. 1-3. 8vo. Manchester, 1894.
Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. xxii, parts 14-21.
Vol iiiii, parts 1, 2. 8vo. Manchester, 1894.
LiTERABY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SociBTY. Memoirs and Proceedings.
Series 4, vol. viii, Nos. 1-3. 8vo. Manchester, 1894.
Microscopy and Natural Science, International Journal of. 3rd Series,
vol. iv, parts 20-23. 8vo. London, 1894.
Naturalist. New Series. Vol. xix, Nos. 222-231. 8vo. London, 1894.
New York Academy op Sciences. Transactions. Vol. xii. 8vo. New
York, 1893.
State Library. 76th Annual Report. 8vo. Alhany, 1893.
. Bulletin No. 4. Stat© Legislation in 'l893. 8vo.
Alhany, 1894.
State Museum. Report No. 46, for the Year 1893. 4to. Albany,
1894.
Bulletin iii. No. 11. 8vo. Albany, 1893.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists* Society. Transactions. Vol. v,
part 6. 8vo. Norwich, 1894.
Northamptonshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Journal.
Vol. vii, Nos. 63-56. 8vo. Northampton, 1893.
Rugby School Natural History Society. Report for the Year 1893.
8vo. Ru^by, 1894.
Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Board of Regents to July,
1893. 8vo. Washington, 1894.
United States Department op Agriculture. Bulletin No. 4. The Prairie
Ground Squirrels or Spemiophiles of the Mississippi Valley. By Vernon
Bailey. 8vo. Washington, 1893.
Geological Survey. 12th Annual Report, 1890-91. Part I.
Geology. Part II. Irrigation. 4to. Washington, 1891.
13th Annual Report, 1891-92. Part I. Report of the
Director. Part II. Geology. Part III. Irrigation. 4to. Washington, 1893.
. Bulletin. Nos. 97-117. 8vo. Washington, 1892-94.
Monographs. Vol. xix. The Penokee Iron-benring
Series of Michigan and Wisconsin. By R. D. Irving and C. R. Van Rise.
4to. Washington, 1892.
. . Vol. xxi. Tertiary Rhynchophorous Coleo-
ptera of the United States. By S. H. Scudder. lb. 1893.
. . Vol. xxii. A Manual of Topographic
Methods. By H. Gannett. lb. 1893.
Wiltshire Arch^kological and Natural History Society. Magazine.
Vol. xxviii. No. 81. 8vo. Devizes, 1894.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. Proceedings. New
Series. Vol. xii, part 4. 8vo. Halifax, 1894.
Naturalists' Union. Transactions. Part 18. The Yorkshire
Carboniferous Flora, by R. Eidston. 8vo. Leeds, 1893.
Philosophical Society. Annual Report for 1893. 8vo. York,
1894.
PxmCTHASED.
Botany, Journal op. New Series. Vol. xxvii. 8vo. London, 1894.
Entomologist. Vol. xxvii. 8vo. London, 1894.
Entomologists' Record. VoL v. 8vo. London, 1894.
Grevillea. Vol xxii. 8vo. Ijondon, 1894.
Hertfordshire Illustrated Magazine. Vol. ii. 8vo. St. Albans, 1894.
Nature Notes. Vol. v. 8vo. London, 1894.
Novitates Zoologic.^. Vol. i, parts 1-6. 4to. Tring, 1894.
Royal Natural History. Vol. i, parts 1-14. 8vo. London, 1894.
Smith, W. G, Man, the Primeval Savage. 8vo. London, 1894.
Zoologist. 3rd Series. Vol. xviii. 8vo. London, 1894.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Ix PROCEEDINGS,
Ordix.uiy Meeting, 22nd March, 1895, at St. Albans.
John Morison, Esq., M.D., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
Mr. E. H. Jackson, 5, Lower Derby Road, Watford ; Mr. Henry
George Moon, London Road, St. Albans; Mr. Thomas Cheadle
Myddelton, Spencer House, St. Albans ; and Mr. J. B. Russell,
B Sc, 17, Lower Derby Road, Watford, were proposed for member-
ship of the Society.
The following lecture was delivered : —
** Extinct Monsters." By the Rev. Henry S. Hutchinson, B.A.,
F.G.S.
The lecture was fully illustrated by photographs kindly shown
by the oxyhydrogen lantern by Mr. T. Ask with.
Ordinary Meeting, 26th March, 1895, at Watford.
W. R. Carter, Esq., B.A., in the Chair.
Mr. E. H. Jackson, Mr. H. G. Moon, Mr. T. C. Myddelton, and
Mr. J. B. Russell, B.Sc, were elected Members of the Society.
Sir Henry Bruce Meux, Bart., Theobalds, Waltham Cross, was
proposed for membership.
The following papers were read : —
1. ** Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1894."
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. {Transactions,
Yol. VIII, p. 131.)
2. "The Floods of November, 1894, in Hertfordshire." By
John Hopkinson. {Transactions, VoL VIII, p. 141.)
3. "Temperature and Rainfall at Hitchin, 1850-94." By
Wm. Lucas and John Hopkinson. {Transactions, Vol. VIII, p. 203.)
4. " Kotos on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1894." By Henry Lewis. {Transactions, Vol. VIII, p. 147.)
5. " Xotes on Birds frequenting the neighbourhood of Herons-
gate, Herts." By A. Sainsbury Verey, M.B.O.U. {Transactions,
VoL VIII, p. 155.)
Letters were read from Mr. J. H. Buxton, Hunsdon Bury, Ware,
referring to the powers of the County Council for prohibiting the
destruction of wild birds, and suggesting that steps should be taken
for the preservation of the rare and beautiful birds of Hertfordshire;
and from Mr. T. Fowell Buxton, Easneye, Ware, suggesting that
the Society should get up an Association amongst the landowners
for the preservation of magpies, kingfishers, and owls, a form of
agreement being tendered to them for signature.
Mr. Alan F. Crossman referred to the destruction of the great
crested grebe for the purposes of trade, and also of the kingfisher.
He thought that the proposed agreement would be valueless in
law, but that a circular might be sent to the landlords asking
them to prevent, so far as they could, the destruction of certain
birds which were becoming extinct in England, and also that the
County Council might be called upon to protect such birds.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95. Ixi
After further discussion it was resolved, on the proposition of
M r. Grossman, seconded by Mr. Henry Lewis, that a representtition
in favour of the protection of the nightjar, kingfisher, owls,
stone-curlew, kestrel, and large crested grebe, bo drawn up by
the Secretaries and submitted to the Hon. Walter Rothschild, and
with his approval be laid before the Hertfordshire County Council.
Ordinabt Meeting, 23rd Apeil, 1895, at Watford.
Daniel Hill, Esq., in the Chair.
Sir Henry Bruce Meux, Bart., was elected a Member of the
Society.
A Memorial, drawn up by the Secretaries of the Society for
presentation to the Hertfordshire County Council, in favour of the
protection in Hertfordshire of the following birds and their eggs,
was read: — Nightjar, Woodpecker, Kingfisher, Owls, Stone Curlew,
Grebes (scheduled); Wryneck, Buzzard, Honey Buzzard, Hobby,
Merlin, Kestrel (not scheduled),
A discussion ensued, and on the proposition of Mr. Alan F.
Grossman, seconded by Mr. Henry Lewis, it was decided to sub-
stitute the crossbill for the wryneck. It was also decided to
represent to the County Council that it was unnecessary for the
close time to commence earlier than the 15th of February, but
that it should continue until the 31st of August as at present
extended in Hertfordshire.
The following papers were read : —
1. "The Gale of the 24th of March, 1895, in Hertfordshire.**
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. With remarks
by Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, and F. W. Silvester. {Tram-
actims. Vol. VIII, p. 199 )
2. " Report on Phonological Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1894." By Edward Mawley, F.R Met.Soc,
F.R.H.8. {Transactions, VoL VIII, p. 193.)
3. " Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during the
year 1894." By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S. {Transactions,
Vol. VIII, p. 188.)
4. " Note on the Blastopore of the Frog's Egg in Relation to
the Hypoblast." By J. B. Russell, B.Sc. {Transactions, Vol. VIII,
p. 129.)
The following papers were taken as read : —
1. *' Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the
year 1894." By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
{Tramactions, Vol. VIII, p. 125.)
2. ** Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St.
Albans, during the year 1894." By John Hopkinson. {Tram-
actions, Vol. VIII, p. 161.)
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Ixii PEOCEEDDfGS,
Bye Meeting, 27th Apeil, 1895.
NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON.
The Members were received in the Great Hall by Sir William
Flower, the Director of the Museum, and were then conducted
through the galleries devoted to the collection of fossil Vertebrata
by Dr. Henry Woodward, Director of the Geological Department,
who drew special attention to the great cast of the iguanodon's
skeleton which has recently been set up. The iguanodon, he said,
was a huge lizard-like reptile which flourished in the Secondary
period. It stood neariy twenty feet high as it hopped or waddled
along, kangaroo-fashion, on its hind-legs, while the thumbs of its
short fore-Hmbs were each furnished with a nail, spur, or spine,
a foot long. In spite of this formidable armature and its vast
bulk, it was not a beast of prey, but a harmless vegetable-feeder,
while its feet, ankles, pelvis, and in fact its whole organization,
are remarkably bird-like in structure and arrangement. The
great difficulties to be encountered in obtaining the skeletons
of these enormous fossils were mentioned by Dr. Woodward, who
stated that the fossil skeletons of these iguanodons were found
at a depth of one thousand feet from the surface of the ground
in a coal-mine in Belgium, and two years were spent in bringing
them to the light of day; a cast of one of the skeletons was
taken at great expense by the authorities of one of the American
museums; and for a replica of this cast the British Government
gave in exchange a mammoth with tusks eleven feet long, a mega-
therium (the great extinct sloth), and a mastodon, which were
worth together some thousands of pounds.
In connection with this subject it was then pointed out by
Mr. Arthur Stradling, the conductor of this meeting, how a
scientific discovery may ajffoct the monetary vcilue of a fossil or a
fossil- impression. Certain fossilized tridactylous footprints in the
Connecticut Red Sandstone, had, he said, until a short time ago, been
accepted as those of some gigantic bird. The creature, whatever it
was, had evidently walked across soft mud which had subsequently
hardened into stone without being disturbed, for on some of the
slabs were the pits produced by the rain-drops of a shower which
was falling at the time. But the geological formation in which
these footprints were found was long antecedent to that which had
hitherto been considered to be coincident with the earliest appear-
ance of birds, even in the early stage of their evolution when they
were tooth-bearing and featherless. Much discussion naturally
arose from this, and the square half-yards of stone so impressed
had found eager purchasers at the rate of 200 guineas per footstep.
It had, however, now been shown that this great three-toed,
bird-footed lizard of the Belgian coal-mine — the iguanodon which
Dr. Woodwald had just described — belonged to a race which must
at one time have reigned as the dominant type over almost the
whole surface of the earth, and in its bipedal walk must have left
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1694-95. Ixiii
footprints absolutely identical with those of apparent but spurious
avian origin ; and as there is nothing whatever anomalous in the
geological position of this iguanodon, the market value of these
footprints has fallen to a few shillings each.
Mr. Stradling then conducted the members to the Osteological
(JaUery on the top floor of the Museum, where he gave a running
commentary on the various groups of animals existing at the
present day, represented in this room by their skeletons only,
with special reference to the likeness or contrast presented by
their feet, horns, antlers, tusks, etc. The collection of human
skulls and skeletons was taken first and compared with the similar
collections representing the larger apes, which are placed in
close juxtaposition. The scientitic study of ** criminology," from
the shape of the head and of certain bones, which has recently
come into vogue, was then mentioned, as well as a late extra-
ordinary discovery with respect to ** giantism." It has been
found that a little gland at the base of the skull, called the
pituitary body, for which no use is known, but which seems to
be functional in the lower vertebrates and to diminish in impor-
tance as we ascend in the scale, until its uselessness would appear
to reach a climax in man, in all cases of abnormal development
becomes enlarged, and the question has been broached as to
whether it might not be susceptible to external influence. Gigantic
growth, ho said, is an accident of the individual ; it is not
hereditary, aod seems rarely to commence until the age of thirteen.
The entire tour of the gallery was made, Mr. StradUng lightening
his discourse with many illustrative anecdotes and reminiscences.
The larger skeletons in the wing of the gallery were examined
under exceptional advantages, as permission had been obtained
for the barrier to be taken down expressly for the Society.
Field Meeting, 11th Ma.t, 1895.
TEWIN AND PANSHANGER.
A numerous party, including members from Watford, St. Albans,
Harpenden, Hitchin, and Wormley, assembled at Welwyn Station
at half-past 3, and, under the direction of Mr. Hopkinson, walked
into Tewin Water Park, taking, by permission of the Earl of
Limerick, a private path through the wood by the side of the
Eiver Mimram. The weather being hot and bright, the privilege
of a cool and shady walk was much appreciated.
On entering the grounds of Tewin Water House, the members
were received by the Earl and Cotmtess of Limerick, who very
kindly and quite unexpectedly invited them in and provided
refreshments, after which another pretty walk was taken by
the river and through the woods, Lord Limerick accompanying the
party and pointing out some of the finest trees, especially
the weU-grown service-trees near the house, and the avenues of
beech-trees which run in different directions forming a kind
of pattern. The ash-trees also are particularly fine.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
bdv PEOCEEDHTGS,
On leaving the park a copse was passed through, and a field-
path was taken to Tewin Church. Here the chief object of
attraction is the singular tomb of Lady Anne Grimston (oh, 1710).
From beneath it grow seven ash-trees, apparently springing from
one root, and three sycamores, which cilso seem to be similarly
connected. These trees have lifted and broken the stonework
of the tomb, and the iron railings which enclose it, pressing
against the stems of the trees, are in some plfiwjes so completely
embedded in the wood that they could not possibly be severed
from it. In fact the trees have grown around the iron. These
old railings are now enclosed within a fence of new ones. There is
a popular legend connected with this tomb, as with all similar
tombs, but it is so absurd, and in this case so completely without
foundation, that it would not be worth notice were it not that
thousands of people visit the tomb every year in the firm con-
viction that Lady Anne Grimston was an unbeliever, and thus, in
substituting a supernatural for an evident natural cause of the
destruction of her tomb, they do injustice to the memory of a
pious lady.
The Church (St. Peter's) was entered, but it presents very little
of interest. The interior was partly restored in the year 1864.
Arrangements had been made for tea at Lower Green, but they
were not earned out, and the party walked on across the meadows
and over Harden Hill, through the beautiful lime-tree avenue,
to the River Mimram again. Panshanger Park was then entered,
and the walk through this beautifully-undulating and richly-wooded
park to the Cole Green Lodge was much enjoyed. Some of the
trees near this lodge are very old and quite hollow, but still leafing
freely.
Tea was partaken of at the Cowper Arms, near the station, and
it was so promptly and well provided without previous notice
that the falling through of the arrangements at Tewin was by
no means regretted.
Field Meeting, 8th Juhe, 1895.
GREAT GADDESDEN, NETTLEDEN, AND FRITHSDEN.
It had been intended to hold a Field Meeting once a fortnight
during May and June, and this one was first arranged for the 25th
of May. Special arrangements having to be made for reduced
railway fare, carriages, and tea, members were requested in the
circular announcing the meeting to intimate their intention of
taking part in it, but so few responded to this request that it was
thought advisable to postpone the meeting, and the result was
that instead of the party being only six, as it would have been on
the earlier date, it was twenty-six. This was a larger number
than had been expected, for several who came had not written,
and on arriving at Berkhamsted Station at about three o'clock
it was found that there was not sufficient carriage accommodation,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Traru. Hertf Nat. Hiit. Soe., Vol. VIII, Plate XV.
Tomb of Lady Anne Grimston at Tewin.
The Rn'ER Gade at Water End.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95. Ixv
causing a considerable delay before the party could start for the
drive across the Common to Water End. Usually at this time
of the year the goi-se on Berkhamsted Common is in full bloom,
but it was only here and there that a few blossoms were seen, for
the gorse on our commons had this year nearly all been killed by
the severe frost of February, masses of dingy brown taking the
place of the usual blaze of golden yellow.
On arriving at Water End, a village which is prettily situated
on the River Gade where the road is carried over it by a handsome
stone bridge, the carriages were left, and the party crossed the
meadows by the side of the river to Great Gaddesden, noticing on
the way the numerous springs issuing from the chalk which supply
water to water-cress beds, and thence augment the volume of the
river.
At Great Gaddesden Church the members were met by the Vicar,
the Rev. W. T. Tyrwhitt Drake, and under his guidance the chief
objects of interest in the church were examined. It is an Early
English edifice, probably erected on the site of an earlier church,
for at the time of the Conquest, according to Domesday Book,
there was a priest at Gaddesden, and there was a vicarage here
before the year 1255, when the records of the See of Lincoln
commence. Most of the monuments in the church are to members
of the Halsey family, which has been settled at Gaddesden for
many generations. The Halsey chapel, built about the year 1730,
is on the north side of the chancel. In the year 1877 the wall
separating it from the chancel was pulled down and in its place
two open arches were erected by Mr. T. F. Halsey, M.P. for the
Western Division of Hertfordshire, whose seat, Gaddesden Place,
is beautifully situated on the opposite hill. The tower of the
church, which was rebuilt not many years ago, has a beacon at
the north-east angle. The nave is broad and has a fine oak roof.
The capitals of the four arches south of the nave are very hand-
somely carved in foliage and flowers. The registers, which were
shown by the Vicar, date from the year 1559, and are in a good
state of preservation.
Accompanied by Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake the party then walked
over the hill, along the lane which marks the county boundary,
to Nettleden in Buckinghamshire (now transferred to Hertford-
shire), and its pretty little church was visited, the chief features
of interest in it being pointed out by Mr. Drake, who, on leaving
the party, was cordially thanked for his kind attention.
Nettleden is picturesquely situated in a dry chalk valley in
which probably once ran a stream ; and from it another hill was
crossed by a field-path leading by the side of a curiously -constructed
hollow way, and by a somewhat steep descent on the other side,
the next village, Frithsden, was reached. Here, in a shady spot
under the shelter of a wood (Frithsden Copse) on the next hill-
side, tea was partaken of, most satisfactorily provided from the
village inn.
A pleasant walk through Frithsden Copse and across the Common
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Ixvi PEOCEBDINGS,
brought the members to Berkhamsted station, where they separated
for their respective destinations.
The following ornithological notes are contributed by Mr. Alan
F. Grossman : —
**I think nearly the only thing worth mentioning from the
ornithological point of view is about the dabchick. I saw three
nests of this bird, but did not ascertain the number of eggs in any
case. They were all on the Gade at Water End. I watched the
hen bird (?) leave each nest, and only in one case were any of the
eggs uncovered. In all the other nests the birds covered the eggs
with dead leaves or weeds before leaving, using the beak to do so.
I might mention that the bird also uncovers the eggs with her beak,
laying each piece of weed or leaf on the edge of the nest to have
it at hand to use again. I did not, however, see the bird uncover
the eggs on this occasion, but a fortnight ago I watched one doing
so at the same place.
** The garden- warbler seemed not uncommon about Potton End,
although I am led to believe that in some parts of the county it is
comparatively scarce. The nightingale seemed very nearly to have
finished singing, showing that in most cases young birds had been
hatched. I only heard one all the afternoon. Mr. Brown told me
that he thought he heard the nightjar once during the afternoon."
The meeting was under the direction of Mr. Hopkinson.
Field Meeting, 15th June, 1895.
LUTON HOO.
A considerable number of members assembled at the New Mill
End Lodge of Luton Hoo Park, where they were met by Mr.
James Saunders, of Luton, the Director of the meeting. Several
others, who arrived later, only joined the main party at the close
of the meeting.
The chief feature of Luton Hoo Park is the lake, which is an
artificially-widened portion of the River Lea, a mile and a quarter
in length and a tenth of a mile in width at the widest part. The
lodge at which the park was entered is at the lower end of the
lake, and just below it the embanking of the lake has caused
a waterfall to be formed. This was first inspected, and then the
members walked by the side of the lake in the direction of Luton,
crossed the foot-bridge at its upper end, and returned on the
right-hand bank as far as the island. This is a wild spot, over-
grown with verdure, where Nature is left to do as she likes, the
trees being allowed to grow, and fall, and rot without interference,
so that it was quite a paradise for the naturalists, the most
enthusiastic of whom spent a considerable time on the island.
Through the kindness of His Excellency, Monsieur de Falbe,
the pleasure-grounds, gardens, and conservatories were then
visited by those who did not consider the island to be a greater
attraction.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95. Ixvii
Before lea\dng the park, tea was partaken of by most of the
party at the New Mill End Lodge.
Mr. Saunders reports that he found on the island or in the
woods around the lake the Mycetozoa Lycogala epidendron, Stemo-
nitu fusca, var. confluens (an unusually large growth of a rare
form), and Trichia varia. He also reports the finding of the
following flowering plants : — Ervum hirsutum, Samhucus ehulus^
JEippurU vulgaris^ Symphytum tuberosum, and Carex leporina.
And in the lake he found the following fresh -water MoUusca: —
Spharium comeum, Anodonta cygnea, Planorhis carinatuSf P, aymeus,
Limnaa peregra, L, auricularis^ and L stagnalis.
The finding of Helix pomatia led to a discussion as to the
probability of Luton Hoo having been a Koman station; but
although the apple- snail is found near many ancient encampments,
it is most probably a truly indigenous species which the Eomans
no doubt used as an article of food, having been accustomed to
partake of the representative species, H. lucorum, in Italy.
In addition to the plants recorded by Mr. Saunders, the
following are the more interesting species which were noticed : —
£uonymus europaus (spindle-tree), Trifolium striatum, Hippuris
vulgaris (in the water), Serophularia aquatica^ 8. nodosa. Iris
pseudacorus, I. fatidissima (the former in flower, the latter not yet
in bud), Polygonatum multijlorum (Solomon's seal), and the Carices
C, ripariOf C. acutiformis, C, hirta, and C. glauca,
Moor-hens with their young were seen on the lake, and the
sedge-warbler was heard, evidently being present in considerable
numbers.
Field Meeting, 22nd June, 1895.
DUNSTABLE AND TOTTERNHOE.
This meeting was organized by the Geologists' Association of
London, and was under the direction of Mr. WiUiam Hill, F.G.S.,
of Hitchin, a member of the Geologists' Association as well as of
the Hertfordshire Natural History Society. The place of meeting
was the London and North- Western station at Dunstable, whence
the members of the two Societies, numbering about forty, and
each Society being equally represented, walked over the Downs to
Tottemhoe, visiting on the way the extensive quarries of Messrs.
Forder & Co. in the Grey Chalk, which forms the upper portion of
the Lower Chalk, its position being between the Tottemhoe Stone
and the Melbourne Rock, the base of which was seen at the top of
one of the quarries. The chalk here is quarried to be burnt into
lime.
Maiden Bower, which seems most probably to have been an old
British camp, was then visited, and its chief features of interest
were pointed out by Mr. Worthington Smith. It forms a level
plain, about nine acres in area, nearly circular, and enclosed by
a vallum, the banks of which were stated by Britton and Bray ley
at the beginning of the present century (* Beauties of England and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Ixviii
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SESSION 1894-95. Ixix
^STales,' vol. i, p. 29) to be from eight to fourteen feet high, but
are now very little raised above the general surface of the ground.
The principal object of the meeting was then carried out, and
that was to see an example of the ancient quarries of the Tottemhoe
Stone, which consisted of galleries tunnelled under Tottemhoe
Knoll. It is probable that these quarries were worked at least
as early as the time of the Norman Conquest. In many Hertford-
shire churches early Norman decorative work is of this stone,
which is excellent for interiors, admitting of very fine carving,
but is of too perishable a nature for exteriors, as may bo seen by
the present state of the west front of Dunstable Priory Church,
which was inspected later in the day.
Most of the tunnels which have been worked for this stone for
centuries, up to a comparatively recent period, are now closed by
fallen debris, and even their entrances are concealed by having
become grassed over, but one of them was recently re-opened by
Messrs. De Beringer and Gower, the owners of the large quarries
at present worked at Tottemhoe. Permission for the party to
enter this tunnel had been kindly granted by them, and men
with lamps conducted the greater number of those present, in
several separate parties, through the tunnel and some -of its
ramifications for a distance of more than 100 yards in a direct line
under the hill.
The quarries which are at present being worked were then
visited, and several fossils were obtained from the Tottemhoe Stone,
including part of the jaw of a saurian, with the teeth in position.
Mr. HiU states that ** Messrs. De Beringer and Co., by means of a
trial shaft, have proved the bed of Tottemhoe Stone to be at least
32 feet thick " where these fossils were obtained, and that ** blocks
equal in quality for building purposes to those seen in the pit were
obtained at the bottom of their shaft." (* Proc. Geol. Assoc.,'
vol. xiv, p. 194.)
Returning across the Downs, Dunstable Priory Church was
visited. It is but a small remnant of the original Priory. ** The
glory of Dunstable," say Britton and Brayley, **wa8 its once
celebrated priory, yet of this extensive building little remains but
the part now appropriated for the parish church, and a few frag-
ments in the adjoining wall. It was founded by Henry the First,
about the year 1131, for black csmons, in honour of St. Peter. . . .
The priory church was originally in the form of a cross, with a
tower in the centre, supported by four lofty arches, parts of which,
belonging to the two western pillars, still remain ; these are of
a large size, with clustered columns, surmounted with hexagonal
capitals." ('Beauties of England and Wales,' vol. i, p. 19.)
But by far the most interesting portion of the church is the
west front, the whole of the ornamental work in which is carved
out of Tottemhoe Stone from the ancient workings which had just
been visited. ** The west front," the same writers say, '* has
been considered as * one of our great national curiosities,' from its
singular intermixture of circular and pointed arches, and the curious
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IXX PROCEEDINGS,
manner in which its ornaments are arranged. The great doors had
four pillars on each side, with Saxon capitals supporting five
mouldings, the outermost of which is ornamented with zigzag
work ; the second has angels and foliage in alternate ovals ; the
third, heasts' heads, jessant foliage ; the fourth, a spread eagle and
the signs of the Zodiac, of which Pisces and Capricorn still remain;
the fifth, flowers, etc. The capitals have David playing on the
harp, a figure prostrate to him ; a bishop in pontificalihus^ with
mitre and crosier, and a bearded man in a cap ; two more bearded
men hold a scroll perpendicularly, on whose top is a headless beast,
etc. The lesser door has seven mouldings, on five pillars exclusive
of the inner, composed of roses and laced work, and nail-headed
quatrefoils. The arch between the two doors is half a zigzag and
half a straight moulding, and the interlaced arches within it rest
on capitals charged wiOi grotesque figures ; one seems to have
a number of souls and a devil. The space over the small door is
ornamented by various compartments displaying flowers. Above
the doors are three rows of arches : the first consists of seven flat
arches, with pedestals for statues ; the second of six small and two
large, open to a gallery leading to the bell-tower, with a seventh
arch between the latter, placed over the door, all on treble clustered
pillars. The third row has five pointed flat arches with single
pillars. Over the west door, under the arch, are three ornamental
niches ; and under the west windows of the tower are four roses
in squares. *' {Loo, cit., pp. 19, 20.)
The church was entered, but the interior features have not the
same interest, from a geological point of view at least, as that
attaching to the exterior of the building.
The members of the Hertfordshire Society then left from the
Great Northern station, a few minutes' walk from the church,
the members of the Geologists' Association leaving by a later train
after having tea in Dunstable.
Field Meeting, 19th October, 1895.
THE GROVE, WATFORD.
"When a naturalist settles down to work in his study, he knows
exactly the amount of material at his command, and under such
circumstances he has not the charm of uncertainty, and possibility
of a pleasant surprise, so often experienced by the somewhat
despised collector. Undoubtedly the type of collector who has
no ultimate object in view cannot claim much sympathy from
the true stcident of nature; but, on the other hand, every true
student of nature must be a collector, otherwise his field of view
must necessarily be narrow, and his power of comparison imperfect,
owing to a lack of the knowledge pertaining to the habits and
mode of life of the particular group of organisms in which he
is interested. Every ramble in the country adds to the know-
ledge of the student of nature, and although it must be admitted
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
frans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. VI JI, Plate XVI.
Part of West Front of Dunstable Church.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
SESSION 1894-95. Ixxi
that when a person starts with the object of collecting funiii,
and visits suitable localities, and at the proper season, he naturally
expects to find at least a certain number, even if the primary-
object is not realized the attempt is not a failure, as might at
first sight be considered. In fact, such partial disappointments
often lead to unexpected results; meteoric conditions and other
factors likely to account in some manner for the unexpected
results are carefully noted, and in course of time repeated obser-
vations show that what was at first considered as an anomaly
resolves itself into a law.
Whether this problem had been worked out by the members
of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, and as a body
they were assured in their own minds that few or no fungi could
be found in the autumn of 1895, is not certain; but probably
such was the case, for, during the early part of the day set apart
for the annual fimgus foray, only Mr. Hopkinson and Mr. Massee,
with one of the Earl of Clarendon's keepers, rambled through
Grove Park and Woods in search of fungi.
The almost entire absence of fungi during the first hour's search
seemed to suggest the condition of things already noted; but on
entering Grove Park the first surprise of the day manifested
itself. Numerous objects scattered amongst the grass under an
oak-tree attracted attention, and very soon specimens of the rarest
and most interesting of British fungi — Strohilomyces strohilacetcsy
Berk. — ^ere being carefully packed for future study. This species
was established by Berkeley on a specimen found near Ludlow
many years ago; afterwards a second specimen was collected in
Wyre Forest, near Worcester; and the present discovery is of
much interest as indicating the tenacity of a fungus belonging
to an antiquated and primitive type having its headquarters in
Western Australia.
A second rare species — Collyhia longipes^ Bull. — was also found
in the same park in considerable abundance.
The real importance attaching to the discoveries indicated above
can only be appreciated to its full extent by those interested
in the sequence and evolution of life on the globe ; and to gain an
insight into this most fascinating subject the study of fungi may
be strongly recommended.
But although in the morning the search for fungi was carried
on by only two members of the Society, in the afternoon they
were joined by several others, but not by all who came, for the
St. Albans contingent, owing to their train being late, never
found the Watford members, who duly met the Directx)r and
Keferee at the appointed hour and place.
The Editor has to thank Mr. Msissee for the foregoing remarks
on the collection of fungi, and on the rare species found, and also
for the following list which embodies the results of the day's
collecting, all but two or three of the species having been found
in the morning. Those now first recorded for Hertfordshire are
indicated by an asterisk.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Ixxii
PROCEEDINGS.
Hymenomycetes.
Agaricus (Amanita) phalloides, Fr.
„ (Lepiota) procenis, ticop,
,, ,, rachodes, Vitl.
,, ,, hispidxw. Lasch.
,, ,, lenticularis, La^ch,^
,, (Arraillaria) melleus, Vahl.
,, (Tricholoma) sejunctus, Sow.
,, yy albo-brunneus, Pera.
,, (Collybia) longipes, Bull.
,, (Clitocybe) ela vines, Fr.
,, ,, pithyopnilus, Fr,
,, „ tuba, Fr.
,, ,, laccatus, Scap.
,, (Mycena) purus, Pers.
,, ,, poly^^raramus, BuU.
,, ,, peltrttus, Fr.*
,, (OmphaliaJ striiepileus, Fr.*
,, ,, campanella, batsch.
,, (Inocybe) asterosponis, Qnelet.
,, (Galera) tener, Schaeff.
,, „ bypnorura, Batsch.
,, (Hypholonia) velutinus, Pers,
,, ,, hydropbilus, Bull.
Oortinarius talxis, Fries *
Hy^opborus limacinus, Fr.*
Lactarius turpis, Fr,
,, contro versus, Pers.*
Bussula sardonia, Fr.*
,, fracjilis, Pers.
Marasmius oreades, Fr.
,, peronatus, Bolton,
Panus concbatus, Fr.*
I^enzites tiaccida, Bull.*
Tremella mesent^rica, Betz.
,, versicolor, Berk.*
Dacryomyces deliqueseens, Buhy.
Clavaria cinerea, Bull.*
Thelepbora laciniata, Pers,
Corticium radiot*um, Fr,*
,, molle, Fr.
,, lividum, Pers,*
,, comedens, Fr,
Stereum hirsutum, Fr.
Merulius serpens, To(U.*
Polyporus bispidus, Fr.*
,, adustus, Fr.
Strobilomyces strobilaceus, Bei'k.*
Boletus cbrysenteron. Fr.
,, variecolor, B. ^ Br.
D1SCOMYCETB8.
Peziza brunnea, A. ^ S,
The thanks of the Society are due to the Earl of Ckrendon for
kindly allowing the members free access to his woods and park.
With Tcry great regret the Editor here records the death of the
Earl of Limerick and of Monsieur De Falbe, to both of whom
the Society is indebted for kind assistance at the Field Meetings
in 1895, the former at Tewin Water and the latter at Luton Hoo.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Trans, fferts Nat, EUt. Soe., Vol. VIII, Plate I.
ANCIENT BRONZE IMPLEMENTS.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TEANSACnONS
OF THB
HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
I.
THE BRONZE AGE.
By Sm John Evajts, K.C.B., D.C.L.. LL.D., Sc.D., Trea8.R.S.,
V.P.S.A., etc.
The iubttanee of a Lecture delivered at Waifordy lUh November^ 1893.
PLATES I-III.
As your President has informed you, I was appealed to in the
most touching manner to give some kind of an opening lecture at the
beginning of the present session of this Society. No subject purely
within the province of Natural History seemed available for me,
but on loolang at the subjects included within the scope of the
Society I found that one of them was Pre-historic Archaeology,
of which you have an official Recorder.
Now Pre-historic Archaeology is a comparatively wide term, and
embraces aU those phases of human civilization which took place
prior to the advent of written history in any given country, and I
think it is well for any Natural History Society to embrace Pre-
historic Archaeology within its scope, for, after all, of all created
animals, man claims the first place, and anjrthing that relates to
the history and development of man and of human civilization ought
to be of interest to all, and specially to those who are students of
natural history.
1 will not apologise in any way for selecting such a subject, but
I may say, in the words of an old Roman author, '' I am a man,
and I regard nothing human as foreign to me," or I may quote
one of our English poets, and say,
*' The proper study of mankind is man.'*
My lecture will be confined to only one of those periods into
which Pre-historic Archaeology has been divided — the Bronze
Period. The question naturally arises — What do we mean by the
Bronze Period r
In the first place, what is bronze ? Bronze is an alloy of copper
and tin in certain proportions — about nine parts of copper to one of
VOL. Vm. — PABT I. 1
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
2 Sm JOHN EYANfl — THE BBjOKSE AGE.
tin, — ^which produces a comparatively hard and malleable metal,
and the name of bronze is derived from a source which will not at
once be obvious to all. We often, in fact eveiy week we hear
of men making the passage to India by Brindisi. The old name for
Brindisi was Brundusium, as all who have read their Horace will
be well aware; and there is a metal, consisting in the main of
copper and tin, which was known as Brundusian metal, and irom
that came the word ** bronze." The Bronze Period is that which
is characterized by the use of that particular alloy of copper and
tin. In order to make this clear I must go into the question of
the division of pre- historic times. "We find, if we trace the
progress of man backwards in time, that, though we might call the
present day the age of steel, of printing, of gunpowder, or what
not, yet that, going a little farther back, the principal tools and
weapons or other implements in use were not so much made of
steel as of iron, and looking farther back still, that the iron tools
superseded the use of those made of another metal — ^bronze. In
a similar manner we find bronze weapons coming in and super-
seding the stone weapons which were in use when no metal what-
ever was known for cutting purposes. "We must not, however,
suppose that at what may be termed the close of the Stone Period
the use of stone entirely went out. Even at the present day we
find stone used, not only for the purpose of striking a light, but by
the modem carpenter as a scraping tool in the modified form of
a broken bit of glass.
In the same way as stone survived for special purposes when it
had gone out of genend use in consequence of bronze having come
in as the material for cutting tools, so also when bronze went out of
use it still to some extent survived, partly for ornamental purposes
and partly for religious and ceremonial uses : for in all cases and in
all countries we find that the religious ceremonials continue and
preserve the usage of former times in a manner which no other
usages do. Those Ages, as I said before, overlap one another,
though they are as distinct as the three principal colours of the
spectrum, while, like them, they blend and intermingle, so that
it is hard indeed to say where one ends and the other begins.
"We have, in addition to the minor monuments discovered in
the soil, historical testimony as to the succession of these three
Ages. A great presumed authority on Homer, no less a person
than our former Prime Minister, Mr. Gladstone, has said that
the poet lived at a time when the use of iron was just com-
mencing, when the commodity was rare and its value very
great ; and Hesiod looks back with an admiring envy from
his Iron Age to the Heroic period, and in glowing terms
depicts a time when iron was not known and all implements
were made of bronze. Lucretius, in a well-known passage, states
that the ancient arms were the hands, nails, and teeth, as well as
stones, and occasionally branches torn from the trees. Afterwards
the power of iron was discovered, but, he adds, the use of bronze
was earlier than that of iron. There is also a very curious
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SIB JOHir EYANS — THE BBONZE A6B. 3
memorial of this use of bronze surviving in the Greek language.
A blacksmith, a man who works in iron, is called, even in classic
times, a chalkeus, a man who works in bronze, showing that the
name still survived when iron had supplanted bronze. In religious
ceremonies we find numerous instances of bronze survii-ing.
The Tuscans, when they laid out the boundary of a new city,
employed bronze for the ploughshare ; the knives and shears
used in ceremonial performances by the Romans were made of
bronze ; and Medea and Elissa are said to have reaped their
harvests with bronze sickles. Though iron came into use in Italy
at least 600 years before Christ, bronze survived for battle-axes
and spears to a much later period. It is hard to say when iron
was first introduced into Egypt, but its use does not go back to the
earliest period of Egyptian history, and probably to not farther than
1300 or 1400 years B.C. It was in use in Egypt earlier than in
Greece. An early Greek writer, writing B.C. 100, gives an account
of bronze wedges being used in ancient Egyptian gold mines, and
he subsequently refers to other bronze antiquities. It is now
thought that bronze and copper were in use in Egypt probably
nearly 4000 years before Christ. In the course of my remarks
I sludl call attention to a very remarkable spear-head of bronze
from Egypt, belonging to a period somewhere between the days
of Joseph and of Moses.
But between the Bronze and Iron Ages we have a certain tran-
sitional period, from which some examples have been found in
Austria, in the neighbourhood of Halstatt. About 2U00 graves
have there been examined, and in them were found implements,
not only of bronze but also of iron, which in form and character
had apparently been modelled on those of bronze.
Except in the metal, there is no difference between the bronze
sword and the iron one which succeeded it. In our own country
we have antiquities to which Mr. (now Sir Wollaston) Franks has
given the name of Late Celtic, which belong to a time when
iron had come into general use, but prior to the Roman occupation
of this country.
Bronze, as I have said before, is a composite metal of copper
and tin, and a natural inference would be that at some period of
the world's existence there must have been a Copper Age. Of
that Copper Age we have in Europe but very little trace. However,
in India, where it seems probable that the bronze civilization of
Egypt and Europe originated, a number of copper implements have
been found, consisting of axes and other tools or weapons in their
simplest form. Some copper tools have occasionally been found in
other countries, and the question has arisen whether this is not
due to the scarcity of tin rather than to the fact that copper was
in use prior to bronze. A Copper Age has been claimed for
Hungary, but there the copper implements belong to a late period
in the Bronze Age, and it appears that the softer metal was
probably preferable to bronze for the particular purposes to which
these implements were applied.
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4 SIB JOHN ETAirS — ^THE BBONZE AGE.
The question lias arisen — ^Whence did the ancients, whether here,
or in Egypt, or elsewhere, derive their tin ? The Egyptians, in
all probability, obtained it from the East. Here, not improbably,
the tin was procured from Cornwall, where we know that there
was an early commerce for tin, even in Phoenician times.
Homer gives an account of bronze casting; that is to say, he
gives an account of men throwing into the fire the indomitable
copper, and tin with it. The properties of the alloys of copper
and tin are very remarkable ; a certain amount of tin, up to ten
per cent., adds materially to the heirdness of the metal, without
injuring its malleability. When, however, the mixture contains a
larger proportion, 30 or 40 per cent., of the softer and more readily-
fusible metal, the result is a very hard and very brittle alloy.
We employ such an alloy for the specula of telescopes, and it is
known as speculum metal. But the old bronze-founders seem to
have been aware of the fact that the addition of a greater pro-
portion than usual of the softer metal hardened the copper, and
we find hammers and other tools made of this instead of ordinary
bronze.
In treating this subject on the present occasion I prefer to
regard it from the technological point of view. I will describe
most of the different forms of weapons and instruments, more
particularly those found in the British Isles, though I may
occasionally touch upon those found on the continent of Europe.
In Britain we have a considerable number of tools which were used
in the arts of peace, some of which, however, were also applicable
for the purposes of war; but we have in addition others which
were certainly used as weapons of war, and there are certain
remains which were strictly personal ornaments.
As to the methods of manufacturing the different forms, and the
way in which they were produced, I will speak subsequently ;
I think it well now to give some general view of the different
forms of weapons, implements, and ornaments found in this
country. Besides the diagrams shown on the walls I have brought
a selection of specimens, which may be inspected after the lecture.
The first and simplest form is that known as a celt. Celt is a very
improper word to have ever been used in connection with a tool
of this kind, for '* celt" in English is derived from the Latin word
celtUf and that only occurs once in the Book of Job, in the Vulgate
translation, and is, moreover, merely an error in transcription. But
it is supposed to mean a chisel, coming from calare, to carve, the
proper word being calumf and that being confused with the word
caelum t **the heavens," the word eeltis has been preserved and used
as the name for these bronze implements. There are various forms
of these celts. One, as will be seen from Pig. 1, was perfectly
plain, having its sides and face nearly smooth and fiat, and some-
what curved longitudinally from end to end; another (Fig. 2)
will be noticed as having fianges, not unlike the modern rail of
the railway ; another, known as a palstave, was furnished with a
groove on either side ending in a well-defined stop-ridge and with
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am JOHK EYAirS — THE BBONZE AGE.
projecting wings, sometimes with and sometimes without a side-
loop (see Figs. 3 and 4) j and lastly, one furnished with a socket
for the reception of the haft and with a loop at the side, is
known as a socketed celt. One of these is shown in Fig. 5.
The general purpose for which they were used seems to have
heen that of an ordinary axe or hatchet. They are found in
several stages, from a large size, evidently that of the original
casting, down to a much smaller size, when they had been worn
down by use, and by grinding, and possibly repaired after portions
had been broken on. These implements are found over the whole
of Europe. They also occur, though rarely, in Asia, and I have
seen specimens from China and Yun-nan, The earliest celts are
nearly flat and plain at the sides, and were no doubt modelled
from those in stone. Here is a stone hatchet from Denmark and
a bronze hatchet from Cyprus. As regards the face and sides they
are almost identical in form, and the probability is that that of
metal was brought in as a substitute for that of stone.
At this point it may be well to consider the probable origin of
copper implements. Copper, found in its native state, can be
hammered into shape. We can understand a savage regarding
a lump of native copper as a stone, trying to chip it into shape,
and finding that by blows of his stone hammer he could shape it.
As a perfect illustration of this, we find in America and Canada
tools and weapons, hammered by means of stone hammers out of
native copper, which have reached the required shape probably
without the intervention of fire. Frequently European celts were
ornamented on the face with very delicate hammered markings,
giving them in some cases a surface having the appearance of
Morocco leather. The earlier forms were mounted by being
inserted in a wooden dub, but it was found that they acted
as wedges and tended to split the handle, so a stop-ridge was
introduced; and at last they reached the palstave form, ^vith a
strong cross-ridge, which absolutely prevented their being driven
in further than was intended. The sides were sometimes drawn
out by hammering, thus forming flanged celts, and in some cases
the flanges themselves were bent over.
The next form after the flanged celt was the palstave. The
term is Scandinavian in origin, a kind of hoe somewhat similar to
these bronze implements, called a paalstab, being still in use in
Iceland. The word paalstab is derived from pali to dig, " pall "
(like the French pelle and Latin pala) meaning a kind of spade.
The same word still survives in England in ** peel," the kind of
wooden shovel used by bakers for putting the loaves into the oven.
" Stab" is equivalent to our staff. The word paalstab occurs in
the Sagas, and is applied to one of the weapons used for battering
the shields of the enemy. The flanges were gradually hammered
over more and more till they formed a kind of socket on either side
of the blade, and at last some clever founder discovered a way of
casting one with a single socket, and thus produced the socketed celt,
the latest fomu We find the flanges of ^e palstave still surviving
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6 8IK JOHN ETAW8 — THE BBONZE AGE.
in many cases on the outside of the socketed celt, although the
necessity for them had disappeared. Most of the socketed celts
were provided, like some of the palstaves, with a loop on the side
for the insertion of strings to bind them to the handle. To haft
any of these celts involved finding a branch of a tree which entered
another one at right angles.
Besides the forms already described there was the tanged celt,
which approached very closely to the modem chisel. A specimen,
from Wallingford is shown in Fig. 6. Socketed chisels were more
rare, but several specimens have been found. One from Heathery
Bum Cave, Durham, is shown in Fig. 7. Besides the ordinary
straight chisel they made use of the hollow one or gouge, one of
which is represented in Fig. 8. A number of hammers have been
discovered made like the socketed celts, so that the handle, instead
of going through the head, went into it. They have been often
found in bronze-founders' hoards, in which there were also found
scraps of old metal, sometimes the moulds in which new objects
were to be cast, and occasionally the new article in an unfinished
state. A hammer from the Isle of Harty is shown in Fig. 9.
Anvils were occasionally found, and doubtless many of the socketed
hammers were mounted on stakes so as to serve as anvils. Axes
perforated with a hole for the reception of the handle, after the
present method of hafting, have not yet been discovered in England,
although several have been found on the continent. Knives were
of course in use, the ordinary form being straight, double-edged,
and fitted with a socket, through which passed one or two rivets,
as will be seen from Fig. 10. Another form had a flat tang,
sometimes provided with rivets like Fig. 11, and sometimes with
a ribbed tang merely driven into the handle. Single-edged blades,
like those in use at the present time, are very rare in England,
although common on the continent. Occasionally a human figure
formed part of the handle, and sometimes a ring was dexterously
cast upon it. Implements which have been looked upon as razors
have also been found, so that it seems probable that the people of
the Bronze Age shaved. A double-edged curved blade with a tang
and a perforation through the blade was the usual form in this
country, like that from Wallingford (Fig. 12). The blades were
frequently ornamented in a very artistic manner. Very few saws
have as yet been discovered in England, although severed specimens
have been found on the continent. I have one in which the teeth
are pyramidal and broader than the back of the blade, so that
it cleared itself in sawing. Files of bronze have been found, but
they belong to a late period, and none have as yet been discovered
in England. Awls are found amongst the earliest implements;
they were apparently used for sewing. In Denmark a ladies*
housewife of that period consisted of an awl, a pair of tweezers,
and a knife. The awl was used for boring holes in the leather,
through which the thread was passed and caught by the tweezers,
and of course the knife was used to cut it off. These appliances
are rarely found in this country.
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Trans, Herts Nat. Hist. Soe., Vol, VIII, Plate 11,
ANCIENT BRONZE IMPLEMENTS.
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SOL JOHN ETAirS — THE BRONZE AGS. 7
"We have evidence that the people at that time were acquainted
"with some kind of grain, and that they reaped it in the manner which
Pliny describes as practised by the ancient Gauls, namely, cutting off
the ears only. In Switzerland a wooden handle designed for a
bronze sickle has been found. It has recesses cut in it for the four
fingers as well as for the thumb, thus giving a perfect grasp. A
socketed sickle from the Thames is shown in Fig. 13. Buttons of
bronze are frequently found, and fish-hooks have turned up very
similar to those in use at the present day. Among the earliest
forms of weapons which were used in the Bronze Age are small
daggers, of which it is hard to say whether they were knives or
daggers, and to which the term knife-daggers has been applied.
They were sometimes socketed and sometimes tanged, but were
usually fixed to their handles by two or three rivets. An example
from a Yorkshire barrow is shown in Fig. 14. One found in one
of the Wiltshire barrows had the handle decorated by driving
in tiny gold pins so as to form a delicate pattern, which it
would be very hard to reproduce at the present day. A copy
of Hoare's figure of it is given in Fig. 15.
Passing to weapons of a more purely warlike character, I will
commence with the sword. The bronze swords have been generally
regarded as Koman, but long before the Romans appeared in
England the Britons were well acquainted with iron, and did not
use bronze swords. As a matter of fact they must belong to a
much earlier period, being distinctly pre-Roman. They were
hafted in various ways, the hilt usually being perforated for the
reception of rivets, by means of which handles of stag-horn, cow-
horn, or wood were fastened to them. Fig. 16 represents a
specimen from the Thames. Occasionally they are found with
bronze hilts. Others were smaller, of rapier-like form, with two
rivet holes at the base, and these were used more for thrusting
than cutting. Many were only fitted for piercing, like the modem
bayonet.
There is one curious feature about the bronze swords which has
led to much speculation. Many of them have such small handles
that the ordinary hand of a modem Englishman is barely capable of
grasping them, whereas the thin, wiry htind of a Hindoo or other
Eastern is still able to go between tlje hilt and the pommel.
From that circumstance it has been inferred that the bronze-
using people were of small stature with very delicate htinds, and
resembled what some people term ** our Aryan ancestors." But
this view cannot be thoroughly substantiated. The large swords
usually had large handles, into which large hands could go, while
small swords had but small handles. The handle seems to have been
adapted to the size of the weapon, just as in these days the whole
hand can go into the handle of a hand-saw, whereas only two
fingers will pass into that of a small key-hole saw. The swords were
apparently kept in wooden sheaths provided with plain bronze chapes,
which were riveted to the wood. In others the bronze ends for
the sheaths were provided with two long projections like the fiukes
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8 SOL JOHN EYAKS — THE BROKZE AGE.
of an anchor, which seem as if they would catch at once in any
brushwood the wearer had to march through. Possibly it might
have been an advantage to catch them in something to enable the
sword to be withdrawn.
After the swords come the spear-heads. These were usually
cast with sockets, so that they belong to a comparatively late
period, although possibly some of the tanged weapons like daggers
were used as spear-heads. They are usually leaf-shaped, and
secured to the shaft by rivets, as in the example given in Fig. 17.
Another form was provided with two eyes, through which strips
of leather could be passed to secure it to the shaft, like Fig. 18 ;
and lastly, there are some with apertures or perforations in the
blade, intended to serve the same purpose. I have a spear-head,
found in Ireland, no less than 24 inches in length, and in the blade,
17 inches from the point, are two orifices, which were probably
intended for the reception of a cord. I showed the blade to Mr.
Clibbom, the late Irish curator of the Royal Irish Academy, who
asked me if I could teU him the purpose of those orifices. In my
innocence I replied that I thought they were for the reception of
strings to hold it to the shaft, because there were no rivets.
** Nothing of the kind," said Mr. Clibbom. ** What then are they
for ? " I asked. " They're for poison ! " he replied. To that I
remarked, ** Is it not adding insult to injury to poison a man after
stabbing 17 inches into his body ? "
Arrow-heads of bronze are hardly ever found, inasmuch as flint
arrow-heads survived into the days of bronze. There is one form
of bronze instrument, a vocal instrument, which occurs more
frequently in Ireland than in Britain — a trumpet. Curiously
enough in Caesar's time the ancient Britons still preserved a
trumpet, very much of the same kind. On a coin of Tasciovanus
struck at Verulam, there is an effigy of a horseman wielding one
of these instruments, and they are frequently delineated on Roman
coins which commemorate victories over Gauls and Britons. Another
weapon of only occasional occurrence in this country is the halberd.
It is more common in Ireland, but extremely rare in "Western
Europe. One or more have been found in Spain, which gives
support to the idea that there was communication between Ireland
and Spain in these early tj^es.
Turning to weapons of defence, I may describe some shields
which certainly belong to the end of the Bronze Age. That shown
in the diagram is 14 inches in diameter, and made from a single
sheet of bronze, with large bosses stamped out in it. The most
common type in the British Isles is one having a series of con-
centric rings, from 12 to 30 in number, with rings of small studs
between them.
Lastly I come to the ornaments, of which the chief were torques
or twisted necklaces. Bracelets and armlets are also abundant.
Several forms of ear-rings are found, of which one was made in the
form of half a tube, with a small projecting hook in the centre to
fasten it to the ear. In modem times it might have served to hold
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SIB JOHN ETAN8 — THE BB0N2X AOB. 9
a cigarette. Varions forms of pins have been found, and in addition
to those of bronze and gold many necklaces have been discovered
made of amber and jet.
Cauldrons made of a number of thin plates of bronze hammered
into shape and riveted together have been found, and in further
evidence of the foreign intercourse already noticed, several of them
seem to be of Etruscan origin. Some oi the trumpets were built
up of flat plates hammered over and riveted in a similar manner
to the fire-hose of the present day. This implies an immense
amount of skill on the part of those who constructed them.
I must now shortly consider what is the chronology of the
period, what date is to be assigned to these objects. It must be
evident that the Bronze Periods in the different countries of Europe
could not chronologically have all been of the same date. We
cannot expect that at the time when bronze or copper was first
known in Egypt it would have been known in the north of
Scotland, in Ireland, or in England, and it must have gradually
spread from some centre or other ; and though we might say that
in Egypt it goes back to 4000 years before Christ, yet iron was
found in Egypt 1300 B.C., while in Greece bronze was almost the
only metal to about 1000 b.g. Iron was not in common use
throughout Europe until some centuries later, and though probably
there was a great amount of intercourse along the shores of the
Mediterranean, and the civilization of one or another of the
southern countries was not very different, yet as we go farther
north it is evident that the introduction of iron and the disuse of
bronze, and the introduction of bronze and the disuse of stone, must
date from a later period than in the more favoured districts bordering
on what at one time was the centre of civilization — Egypt. Iron
was well known in Britain at the time of Caesar's invasion. Take
that as 50 b.c. ; it is evident that it must have been introduced at
a considerably earlier period. It had long been known in Gaul
and Germany, and I think we may safely say that in this country
bronze must have gone out of use some 200 or 300 years b.c,
occasionally surviving in remote districts and being occasionally
used for ornamental purposes. In this country probably bronze,
as also iron, was introduced from Gaul. It seems likely that the
original home, both of copper and bronze implements, was in Asia,
where both copper and tin are found, and whence we have extremely
early examples.
As to the civilization of the people who used the bronze we have
very good evidence from some of those Swiss lake-dwellings of
which so much has been heard. During dry weather the shores
of some of the Swiss lakes have been laid bare, and on them have
been found the remains of habitations erected on piles, from which
when the water was high a number of implements were lost and
buried in the lake, and when from time to time the dwellings were
burnt down the whole property of those who lived in them was
deposited at the bottom of the lake. These lake-dwellings are of
Tarious dates, some belonging to the Stone, some to the Iron, and
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10 8I& JOHN EYAKS — THE BBONZE 16£«
a certain number to the Bronze Age ; and from them we may infer
what was the state of civilization of those who occupied them
during the Bronze Period of Switzerland. First of all, we know
that they were acquainted with lire— they could not work their
bronze without it — but as to their means of producing fire, it would
appear that they used the ordinary pyrites (sulphide of iron) and
a piece of flint. As to their clothes, they employed the skins of
animals, which they were able to sew together by means of the
awl I have already mentioned, and they wore woollen cloth, of
which fragments have been discovered. They also employed flax,
not only for weaving purposes, but also for the manufacture of
string and net ; and they were acquainted with the art of spinning
and weaving, as we know from the spindle-whorls which have
been found. As to domestic animals, they had the dog, the ox, the
sheep, the goat, the pig, and the horse, so that they were not very
much behind us at the present day so far as domestic animals are
concerned. They hunted the red deer, the roe, the boar, the hare,
and other animals ; they fished with bronze fish-hooks exactly like
those in use at the present day, except as reg£irds the metal of
which they were constructed; and they also had nets — I do not
know whether they were limited as to the size of the mesh.
They used arrows tipped with flint, as bronze was much too
precious a metal to be lost; they prepared their skins with stone
scrapers, as was done during the Stone Period ; and they had the
tools which I have mentioned. They had wonderful skill in cast-
ing those tools and weapons. They cultivated cereals, principally
barley, and mcule pottery of a superior kind, ornamented with colour
and sometimes with tinfoil, although they were unacquainted with
the potter's wheel. An amber cup, however, evidently turned in
a lathe and provided with a handle, has been found in England,
and at the close of the period many articles were turned out of
Kimmeridge shale.
The British Bronze-people wore fewer ornaments than the Swiss
lake-dwellers, but had more jet and gold. They wore gold torques
and bracelets, ear-rings, and pins for the dress and hair. That
they had intercourse with other nations is shown by the fact
that they had ornaments made of ivory, and also glass beads.
"We can in some countries divide the Bronze Age into periods*
In England three distinct stages can be traced. The first is
characterised by flat or slightly flanged celts and knife daggers,
which are found in barrows in connection with perforated stone axes
and occasionally knives of flint. Next came the period of more
distinctly flanged celts and tanged spear-heads or daggers ; and
lastly that of palstaves and socketed celts and other tools and
weapons. It was only in this last period that the true bronze
sword and socketed spear-head made their appearance.
Boughly speaking we may consider that the Bronze period
would extend from about 1200 or 1000 b.o. to, say, 200 years,
or possibly later, before Christ.
I cannot now go into the manner of the introduction of bronze
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SIB jomr ETAirs — the bbokze age. It
into this country, nor consider whether it was the result of in-
vasion or of trade, possibly Phoenician, nor can I enter into the
anatomical characteristics of the men of this country of the Bronze
Age beyond saying that they were dolicho-cephalic — long-headed
men.
Some account of the method of casting and making the various
weapons may be of interest. In casting the earliest forms, moulds
open to the air on one side were used, but the later ones had both
sides moulded. Examples in stone of both the single and double
moulds have been found. The two halves of the double moulds
were tied together with string. The hollow in the socketed celts
and spear-heads was produced by means of a clay core, which in
some cases may have been kept in position by little scraps of
bronze. I have in my collection a most complete set of founder's
tools, which were discovered in the Island of Harty, part of
Sheppey. Among them are several moulds for socketed celts and
one for gouges, and some of the articles have evidently been cast
in these moulds. The ordinary method of casting a socketed celt
seems to have been to put the two halves of the mould together
and then to ram clay into them. The core thus obtained was taken
out and cut down so that the walls of the socket would be of
the right thickness ; it was left full size at the top so as to form
a mould for the top edge of the celt, except where channels were
cut for the passage of the molten metal. The clay core would
be burnt to a hard brick by the heat of the casting, and its
extraction would present some difficulty. The workman whose
stock-in-trade we are considering had a pointed tool which he
drove into the burnt clay and so managed to get it out. Originally
he had two, but one of them had the point broken off short, just
where it would come against the margin of a socket. The celts
cast in this manner were blunt at the edges and had to be hammered
out to sharpen them. After this a whetstone would be used to
Enish the sharpening and to smooth down the rough sides. The
small anvil, hammer, and whetstone for doing this were found
in the hoard. This workman not only cast hatchets but he
moulded gouges, and he has left the only example of a mould
for this purpose which has been discovered.
I hope that I have now given a fair idea of how these celts were
manufactured, and I will add a few words as to the manufacture of
shields. It is very hard to tell how the old workmen obtained
the thin sheets of metal necessary for their construction. Moulds
have been found intended to form discs of metal like small
pancakes, and they would be able to beat these out into sheets
on their stone anvils by hammering and constant annealing.
As of great interest, though not immediately connected with my
subject, I exhibit a bronze spear-head which once belonged to
Kames, a king of Egypt of the seventeenth dynasty, who lived
about 1760 years b.c, or between the times of Joseph and of Moses.
Inscribed in hieroglyphics on the blade is the whole of his name
and titles. It seems probable that it was not originally of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ii SIR JOHK EYAirS — THE BBOITZE les.
Egyptian origin, but was imported from some place further east.
This is, in all probability, the first bronze weapon to wliich an
approximately exact date can be assigned. I have also in my
possession a flat axe which bears the same name. Even in
Mesopotamia, where not improbably this spear-head was made,
the method of coring could not at that time have been known,
and the socket has been made by bending over a flat plate. The
socket having been made in this manner and the blade cast,
the two were laid in position in a mould, and hot metal was poured
in till the joint was made fast. That they were acquainted with
the art of burning bronze to bronze in Ireland at a very early date
is proved by the fact that swords have been discovered witb a
small portion of the blade burnt on to the hilt.
The subject of which I have treated represents a long and im-
portant phase in the progress of human civilization, the various
instruments discovered affording a most complete record of the
mode of life of those who made them.
Even supposing that the chronology of the Bronze Age is in
some degree speculative, I trust the slight sketch I have given of
the habits, methods of life, and personal equipment of those who
occupied our country from 2000 to 3000 years ago has not been
devoid of some general interest.
EXPLANATIOUT OP THE PLATES.
PLATE I.
1. Plain Celt. 4. Palstave with side loop.
2. Flaaged Celt. 6. Socketed Celt
3. Palstaye without side loop.
PLATE II.
6. Tanged Chisel from Wallingford. 10. Knife with socket.
7. Socketed Chisel from Durham. 11. Knife with flat tang.
8. Socketed Gouge. 12. Razor from Wallingford.
9. Hammer from the Isle of Harty. 13. Socketed Sickle ht)m the Thames.
PLATE III.
14. Knife-dagger from a Yorkshire 16. Sword from the Thames.
Barrow. 17. Spear-head with rivet-holes.
15. Knife-dagger from a Wiltshire 18. Spear-head with loops.
Barrow.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Trans. fferU Nat, Hi$t. Soc., Vol. VIII, Plate IIL
AXCIEXT BRONZE IMPLEMENTS.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
II.
THE LOWER MICEO-ORGANI8M8 AND THEIE RELATION TO
EVERY-DAY LIFE.
By D. Haktbt Attpdeu), M.A., M.B., CM., D.P.H. (Cantab.).
A L$etwre delivered at Watford^ 2Zrd Jtmuaiy, 1894.
(Abridged.)
Mt subject is so extensive that anything like a comprehensive
survey of it would require not merely one lecture but a series.
Hence the particular micro-organisms I can deal with are only
those which one is constantly hearing of, either as our kindly friends
or fierce foes. To the naked eye they are invisible, yet they are
quite capable of working an infinity of good or harm that might
well have earned for them in years gone by, before their corporeal
existence was demonstrated, the names of good and evil spirits.
One at least really was, as we now know, of service to the old
miracle-mongers — I allude to the micro-organism which is the cause
of what they termed the ** Blood-portent on Bread," and the cause
of milk changing into so-called blood. This is the Bacillus pro-
digiomsy which, when growing on bread or milk gives to either a
reddish appearance.
To micro-organisms we owe that conversion of sugar into alcohol
which is essential to the production of wine, beer, and spirits, and
they are essential to that rising of dough which is a part of the
every-day process of bread-makmg. There is one bacterium which
lives, moves, and multiplies in alcohol. So far from being a tee-
totaler, it swallows or absorbs nothing but alcohol from birth to
death. I allude to the Bacterium aceti, the active principle of the
so-called vinegar plant^ whose life-work is to convert the alcohol
of beer and wine into the acetic acid characteristic of vinegar;
indeed, ordinary vinegar cannot be produced without this micro-
organism.
The greater number of these very important yet excessively
minute bodies are plants of the simplest structure, with the most
elementary modes of propagation, but yet with extraordinary
powers of multiplication. With regard to this latter statement I
may say that in the course of some experiments made by Professor
Watson Cheyne with a microbe known as the Staphylococcus
pyrogenes-aureuSt 248 individuals became over 20,000,000 in the
short space of twenty-four hours.
These micro-organisms are often, though from an etymological
point of view incorrectly, designated under the general title of
Bacteria. As far back as 1728, Leuwenhoeck saw something in
putrid water, but in those early days microscopes were poor, and
though he may have seen bacteria his observations were far from
definite. Not till 100 years later were any authenticated observa-
tions made, when Ehrenberg stated that we were surrounded on all
sides by micro-organisms. Schwann, a few years after this, stated
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 D. H. AITFIELD — THE LOWEB MICBO-OBQAKISKS.
that the air constantly contained various putrefactive and fennen-
tative germs, and also that fermentative processes were dependent
on the access of living organisms. Since that time, owing to the
labours of such renowned workers as Pasteur, Koch, Klebs, and
Du Bary abroad, and Klein, Crookshank, Sims-Woodhead, Watson
Cheyne, and many others in our own country, steady progress has
been made in the knowledge of these organisms, which may be
well termed, as I have said, our invisible friends and foes.
As to a classification of the micro-organisms for general purposes,
the best will be that depending on their physical form. Microbes
consist of single cells composed of that wonderful complex organic
substance called protoplasm, surrounded with an envelope of Sk
cellulose-like substance, and may be thus classed : —
(I.) Cells more or less spherical, termed cocci.
(II.) Cells more or less cylindrical, known as bacilli.
The first class, with spheric£il cells, is divided into several groups.
{a.) Single separate round cells known as micrococci, {h.) Two
such cells in more or less close contact ; these are termed diplococci.
(<?.) Several cells Joined one to the other to form a chain ; these are
therefore called streptococci, (rf.) A large number of cells in
close contact with each other, forming an irregular bunch, of
grape-like structure, known as staphylococci, (e.) SpherioAl cells
grouped in a peculiar way, resembling a bale or bundle of goods
corded round in three directions, and known as sarcinae.
The second main division, with cylindrical cells, has a number
of subdivisions depending on the various length, thickness, or
curvature of the members, and contains such genera as Bacillus,
Leptothrix, Spirillum^ and some others which need not be mentioned
here.
Having thus roughly classed the microbes, I will say a few
words as to how they are grown for experimental purposes and
also shortly touch on the methods of bacteriological research.
This is all the more necessary owing to the fact that Bacteriology,
the name of the science which deals with these micro-organisms, is
of quite recent growth, and is but little understood except by those
who make the subject a special study. Everyone can imagine how
the scientific chemist works with his test-tubes, and stills, and so
on ; most people understand or can picture how the anatomist
works by aid of his knife and microscope; but the case is quite
different when we come to study the methods of the bacteriologist,
whose science, as I have said, being of much more recent date, the
various terms used by him convey but little information to the
uninitiated. These micro-organisms are not only ubiquitous, but
are present also in enormous quantities. In our food, and on our
bodies and clothes, they are met with in vast numbers. The mouth
is a very good forcing-ground for several species. If one is un-
fortunate enough to have a decayed tooth the bacteria thrive all
the better. A tiny drop of moisture from such a carious cavity is
spread over a thin microscopic cover-glass, dried, and then treated
with a colouring solution of gentian-violet. The excess of staining
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D. H. ATHTKLD— THE LOWEB KICBO-OBeAKISlCS* 15
material is wadhed off and tbe preparation again dried and mounted
in Canada-balsam. The Tarious micro-organisms are thus fixed and
coloured, and hence may easily be seen. A somewhat special
microscope is necessary for their examination ; it must have what
is known as a one-twelfth-inch oil-immersion lens, and also must
carry a good substage condenser. Any less powerful objective i*
almost useless for observing these microbes, the largest of which
are only what is known in microscopical nomenclature as 5/c,
that is, five micromillimetres in diameter. A micromillimetre or
Greek m is the one- thousandth of a millimetre, and a yard is nearly
1000 millimetres. To make these mathematics less troublesome to
grasp, I may say that if the largest of the microbes were placed
side by side, over 6000 of them would be necessary to give a line
one inch long. To occupy the same space about fifty times as
many, that is, over a quarter of a million, of the smallest would
to required.
A few words now as to the methods employed in bacteriological
research and analysis, and as to the principles on which are
established the causal, or at any rate intimate relation of micro-
organisms with disease in its various forms. As a typical case, the
procedure in the bacteriological examination of water may be
taken. The first object is to ascertain the number of bacterid
present, and then to isolate and identify the various species. With
these objects in view, plate-cultivations are made. Into a tube of
sterile melted nutrient jelly, a small quantity of water, say one or
two cubic centimetres, is introduced. The water and jelly are
thoroughly mixed so as to equally distribute the micro-organisms
through the melted jelly. This is now poured out on to a glass
plate — ^hence the term "plate-cultivation" — ^and placed in an
apparatus to set. When cold the plate is transferred to a moist
chamber and placed in the incubator, which is kept at a certain
temperature. In the course of from 12 to 36 hours a number of
little white or faintly-coloured spots are seen on the surface of the
gelatine. Each microbe in the water has set to work, and by rapid
reproduction has given rise to a colony of its own species. The
colonies may now be counted, and the approximate number of mi-
crobes in the original Water be so ascertained. While these colonies
are small they can be easily picked up with a platinum needle, and
cover- glass preparations may then be made from them. When a
tube of sterile jelly is inoculated with one of these little colonies, a
pure culture is obtained. This can be recultivated and examined,
when its various characteristics are recognised, and its possible
identity with a known species established. Before we can say that
a certain micro-organism is actually the causa eausans of any
particular disease it must respond to Koch's four postulates : {a)
The micro-organism must be found in the blood, lymph, or diseased
tissues of man, or other animal, suffering from, or dead from, the
disease, (h.) The micro-organism must be isolated from the blood,
lymph, or tissues, and cultivated in suitable media outside the
animal body, and these pure cultivations must be carried on
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16 D. H. ATTFISLD— THE UdWEBL MICRO-OBaAiriSlCS*
thiougb successive generations of the organism, (e,) A pnxe culture
thus obtained must, when introduced into the body of a healthy
animal, produce the disease in question, (d.) Lastly, in the inocu-
lated animal the same micro-organism must again be found.
[In the course of the lecture a large number of photographs of
the better-known bacteria were shown by the aid of the oxy-
hydrogen lantern. The following are a few of the species
exemplified, with the remarks made upon them.]
Proteu9 vulgaris^ Bacterium termo^ and Spirillum undula, — ^These
are intimately associated with the phenomena of putrefaction.
They are of the highest importance to man, and may well come
under the title of invisible friends ; for they utilise the excretions
of living beings and the carcases of dead anmials and plants, after
breaking them down into their simplest constituents, to supply
those elements which are necessary for the nutrition of plants;
thus, from dead organic matter producing the food which is
necessary for the vegetables, which are in their turn the food
of animals.
Sarcina, Bacterium figwrans^ Spirillum tenue^ and S. volutans. —
These are, if not active friends, certainly not dangerous enemies.
Baeillw anthracis, — This is the direct cause of wool-sorters'
disease in man, and what is known as splenic fever in cattle.
Koch's ^^ comma bacillus J*^ — ^Whether this is the true cause, or
only an attendant circumstance, of Asiatic cholera, is still the
subject of active discussion. Professor Max von Pettenkofer used
to say of this bacillus, of which both he and his colleague,
Professor Emmerich, of Munich, ate a considerable quantity
without developing cholera, or indeed suffering from any un-
pleasant consequences : "To produce an attack of cholera three
things are necessary — (1) the bacillus, (2) a suitable soil for it to
grow on, that is, a person in a susceptible condition, and (3) a
tertium quid^ What this ** third something " was, my old master
Von Pettenkofer did not pretend to say, but he was convinced that
without it one did not catch cholera.
The ^^ tubercle bacillus.^' — This is perhaps one of the most
dreaded of our foes among the micro-organisms. It is the cause
of that fatal and widespread disease, consumption, or, as it is more
scientifically termed, tubercular disease.
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ni.
THE NATUEAL HISTOET OP THE SALMON. .
By QsoEos BooPEB, F.Z.S.
lUad at JFat/ord, 20th Mareh, 1894.
Shaeespzabb tells us that there are ''Seven Ages" of man.
There are, too, seven ages of the salmon. The first is the e^g»
The eggs are deposited, some time in the winter months, in beds of
gravel over which a rapid stream flows, principally in the upper
reaches of the river, where the water is more aerated than it is
lower down, and free from pollutions of any sort ; for clay, earth,
or any extraneous substance would choke and destroy the embryo
fish. Indeed, from the time of entering the river, the object of
the fish seems to be to arrive at its source. Until they have
spawned they never descend, but, resting at times in favourite
pools, continually struggle upwards. Only the late fish spawn in
the lower waters.
To such as have only seen the salmon in prime condition, the
appearance of the fish when on the eve of spawning would indeed
be a surprise. The female is dark in colour, almost black, and her
shape sadly altered for the worse from that which she presented
when in condition. As for the male, he is about as hideous a beast
as can well be imagined. His general colour is a dirty red,
blotched with orange and dark spots. His jaws are elongated, and
the lower one is furnished with a huge ''beak," as thick and
nearly as long as my middle finger; his teeth are sharp and
numerous; and his head, from the shrinking of his shoulders,
appears disproportionately large. His skin is slimy and disagree-
able to handle. In fact a more repulsive creature in appearance
does not exist.
Arrived on the spawning ground, the female, then called a
baggitt, alone proceeds to form the nest — ^the ** redd " it is termed.
This she effects by a sort of wriggling motion of the lower part of
her body working on the loose gravel. Many authors state that
this is effected by the action of the tail, but I do not think so ; the
convex formation of the body at that period would prevent the tail
from touching the gravel imless the fish stood at an angle of 45^,
in which case the stream would carry her down. The " redd," a
deep trench, being formed, she proceeds, attended by the male fish,
frequently by two "kippers," as they are called, to deposit her
eggs. This she does, not all at once, but in small quantities at
intervals, frequently returning to the redd for the purpose. The
eggs are at once fecundated by the milt of the kipper. This
process goes on for two or three days, the fish smking down
occasioncdly into the pool below to rest and recover their strength.
The effect of the fertilization of the ova is to add greatly to t^eir
specific gravity ; the eggs sink, and are at once covered with gravel
by a sinular motion on the part of the baggitt to that used in the
VOL. Vni. — ^PABT I.
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18 G. BOOFEB — THE SALMON.
formation of the redd. Here, the process being completed, the
eggs remain during a period of from 120 to 140 days, according to
the temperature of the water. At the expiration of that time, the
little fish come into existence, and after a few days wriggle out of
their gravelly bed and seek refuge under some rock or stone
adjacent, where they remain in safety for 12 or 14 days longer.
The appearance of the young £sh at that time gives little promise
of the beautiful form which they subsequently attain. They
are indeed shapeless little monsters, more like tadpoles than £sh,
each furnished with a little bag of nutriment forming a portion of
the abdomen. On this, for two or three weeks, they subsist, until,
on its being absorbed, they take the form and assume the rank of
fishes. They are then about one inch in length, and are known
as salmon fiy or samlets — the second stage. Some of the eggs
are washed down the stream during the process of spawning, and
become the prey of trout and other fish which swim near the redds
for the purpose of feeding on them. In this they do no harm
whatever, for these eggs, being uncovered and unfecundated,
could never arrive at maturity.
The kippers, when not actually engaged in the spawning process,
swim rapidly about the redd, fighting fiercely with one another.
The use of their beak, which I have described, appears to me
then to come into operation. Mr. Pennell, in his volume of the
Badminton Library, and many other authors, erroneously describe
this beak either as a weapon of offence, or as a sort of pickaxe
used in digging out the redd. It seems to me that nature has
provided this singular excrescence as a protection and safeguard
against the savage attacks made by the fish on each other. So
large is its size, and so closely does it fit into a hole or socket
formed in the upper jaw, that it would appear almost impossible
for the fish even to open his mouth ; but he does so, to some
extent at least, and with his cat-like teeth inflicts deep, and some-
times dangerous, wounds on his antagonists. As for its alleged
use as a digging implement, it is out of the question. The
substance of the beak is cartilaginous, not homy, and by no means
hard ; it would be worn down in the process of digging in ten
minutes, and, as I said, the female alone prepares the redd. This
suggestion, I may remark, is entirely origineil.
After leaving the stone or rock under which it has sought pro-
tection, the growth of the young fish is very rapid, as is natural in
a creature destined to attain such huge dimensions as the salmon
is capable of: one of 83 lbs. in weight is recorded by Yarrell as
having been captured. In the course of a month or six weeks the
fry have attained to the length of four inches, and are then called
**parr" — ^the third stage in their existence. The parrs bear con-
spicuously on their bodies transverse marks or bars, which are
common to the young of every member of the salmon family.
Unfortunately, there is another little fish, a humble relation of
the lordly salmon, also barred, very similar in appearance, which
too is called a parr, and the identity in name and similarity in
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G. BOOPEB — THE SALMON. 19
appearance has occasioned great confusion and much heated con-
troversy, especially as they are inhahitants of the same waters, and
affect, to some extent, each other's company.* The time of their
remaining in the parr stage is also a suhject of dispute: Mr.
Pennell says two or three, sometimes four, years, but my own
opinion is tiiat they remain one year only.
In the second April of their existence a change in the appear-
ance of the parr occurs ; he assumes the silvery scales of the adult
fish, wearing his new apparel over his old barred coat He is now
called a " smolt " — the fourth stage ; and perhaps, with a wish to
exhibit himself in his new and beautiful apparel, he evinces a
daily-increasing restlessness and desire to quit his home and to go
forth into that world of waters he may have dreamed of in his
ante-natal tomb. The wish is soon realized. "With the first floods
in May myriads of these lovely little fishes start on their downward
journey towards the sea. It is a beautiful sight to watch their
movements when descending. For many days the river teems
with them, and not a square foot of water is without one, each,
when the stream is at aU rapid, swimming tail first ; and as they
are carried down, fighting against the stream, as it were, darting
upwards for a foot or two, again to be carried a yard downwards.
As fry the smelts were exposed to many dangers, but they are
nothing to those which beset them as parrs on their journey
towards the sea. Their enemies are legion. Trout and pike
devour them; gulls flop down and swallow them wholesale.
Herons, stan^g mid-leg deep in the water, pick them out as
they pass, and even their blood-relations — ^fathers, mothers, uncles,
axmts— " kelts," as the fish after spawning are called, devour them
without scruple. Unluckily too for them, a certain number of
these hungry kelts, having recovered to a great extent their con-
dition, and being convalescent as to their appetite, accompany
them on their seaward journey, and prey upon their young com-
panions as they travel. I believe that a hungry old kelt will
devour forty or fifty smelts in a day. It is illegal to capture, or
at least to appropriate if caught, one of these little fish, or the
ravenous monsters who prey on them — a useless aud mischievous
prohibition to my thinking. Smelts are capital eating, and for the
boys great fun in catching. Of course if 100 or 1000 are taken
out of the river there are 100 or 1000 fewer in it, but the same
may be said of the river itself; take 100 or 1000 buckets-full out,
and there will be that number of buckets-full fewer in it. But
the abstraction would make no appreciable difference in the volume
of water. As for the kelts they are for the time barren fish.
Strange that the law should protect the multitudinous fry and the
spent fish, and permit the destruction of the baggitts, heavy in
spawn, the teeming mothers of millions.
* In the Ythan, a river in Aberdeenshire, a portion of which I now rent, all
the tront are barred, and so remain, whatever their size. They are, however,
genuine trout (Saltno fario)^ having the distinctive blood- rea mark on the
adipose fin. — G. R.
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20 6. BOOPEB — THB SALMON.
Arrived at the sea, the little fish are met by a fresh array of
enemies. The army of gulls is always with them, and it is re-
inforced by cormorants, divers, and other sea-birds, besides which
shoals of ravenous fish await their arrival, and assist in thinning
their ranks. It is wonderful that any should escape ; indeed, but
for the extraordinary fecundity of the salmon, they would speedily
be annihilated, but such is their prolific nature that a remnant
always survives, to return to the spawning beds and keep up the
supply. Mr. Frank Buckland calculated tibat the number of eggs
laid by a salmon was about 1000 to the pound weight, a fish of
15 lbs. therefore producing 15,000 eggs.
The food of the smolts during their sojourn in the sea is
abundant, consisting chiefiy of sand-eels, molluscs,' and marine
insects. They increase accordingly very rapidly in size, and in
three or four months the fish that came down five or six ounces in
weight returns to the river from which he came, a grilse of from
four to six pounds.
The grilse is the fifth stage of the salmon's existence. Unless
accidentally prevented, the grilse always returns to his native
river, and, after spending the autumn and winter at home, and
providing for the continuance of the family by spawning, as already
described, he returns as a kelt — ^the sixth stage — to the sea in the
following year, reappearing the next year as a salmon of at least
ten or twelve pounds weight — the seventh and last stage.
Such is a short history of the salmon, from '^ the cradle to the
grave," for his life, if he escape the manifold dangers to which he is
exposed, is but a repetition of what I have stated. I shoidd have
mentioned that, after spawning, the fish speedily recovers his
colour, and to a great extent his condition; the baggitt at once
loses her dark complexion, the kipper discards his hideous livery,
his great beak is rapidly absorbed, his sides become silvery, and
his back assumes a dark bluish tinge.
After spawning, the fish are called kelts, whether they are male
or female ; there is little difference in their appearance. Both are
gifted with an inordinate appetite, and, as the river furnishes an
abimdance of food, they speedily assume very syihmetrical pro-
portions, and are really, at least the majority of them, extremely
handsome fish — ^in fact, excepting to a practised eye it is difficult
to distinguish between a well-mended kelt and a clean fish. There
is a prejudice against them as food, and, as I said, the law requires
that, when caught they shall be put back into the river — a great
mistake, I think. Besides that tiiey are really wholesome, if not
dainty food, they are greatly appreciated by fishermen and others
to whom they may be given. Moreover, at least nine out of ten
that have been caught with a fly or spinning-tackle die from
exhaustion, having been pulled about for an hour or more in the
water before they were landed, for they are very strong, and they
fight to the last. They are, also, too generally landed with the
help of a gaff.
Mr. Pennell describes the kelt as "unfit for food, almost
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6. BOOPEB — ^THE SALMON. 21
poisonous," but I fancy that he has had little practical experience
with kelts. Before the Act protecting them was passed, one could
not make a more acceptable present to a gillie or labourer than a
good kelt, and despite the Act they are still eaten stealthily by
itie fishermen, and anyone who can get hold of one. For myself,
unless a water-bailiff is in sight, I never return a really good kelt
to the water ; I just slip him " cannily " into the bushes, and a
gillie or shepherd comes and takes him home, when opportunity
offers, and feasts with his family right royally upon him.
Hundreds, indeed, are sold at a high price, even in London. The
flesh, I admit, is soft and light-coloured, instead of being firm and
red, and the flavour is very inferior to that of a clean fish, but it
is not bad eating, and it is just as wholesome as a clean fish. To
talk about it as *' almost poisonous" is simply nonsense.
There are many statements published about the salmon which
must be taken eum granoy indeed, with a very big pinch of salt.
It is stated in many books that from the time of his entering the
fresh water he never eats. It is odd, if this be the fact, that there is
no more killing bait for a salmon than a gudgeon, a parr, or a great
dollop of earthworms. In the volume of the Badminton Library,
to which I have alluded, the pace at which the salmon swims is
given as wonderfully rapid. Mr. Fennell puts it at 1500 feet a
minute ; and although this high rate of speed is not attributed to
him on all occasions, it is no doubt implied that his ascent of the
river is at some such rate. Now, the fact is that the pace at which
the salmon travels up the river, the water being in swimming
order, is just one mile an hour, neither more nor less. The same
author tells us that the fish will jump to a height of 10 or 12 feet
out of the water, a fact which must have been drawn from
imagination, not observation. I venture to say that no salmon
that ever swam jumped out of the water more than, perhaps, four
feet. The ascent of the rapid, almost perpendicular, streams which
the fish surmounts is effected by the immense power of the tail.
Give him but "black" water to swim in, and the fish will
surmount an obstacle of any reasonable height ; but this is effected
by swimming, not jumping.
[Mr. Eooper gave two animated accounts of his capture of a
salmon, one being the record of a fish caught in a river, the other
that of one caught in a lake. They will be found in his book
• Thames and Tweed.'— En.]
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IV.
THE WASP INFESTATION OP 1893.
By A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.
Read at Watford, 11th Aprils 1894.
It is hardly right that the abundance of wasps in 1893 should
pass unnoticed by our Society. Both the tree- and ground-wasps
were particularly troublesome, invading our dinner-tables, stripping
our fruit trees, taking possession of the grocers' and confectioners'
shops, and indeed maldng their unwelcome presence felt almost
everywhere. It is not my intention to enter upon any description
of our British Yespidse, nor to discuss their habits. This has been
done so admirably by Miss Ormerod in her * Report on Injurious
Insects for the year 1893,' that little is left to be said. She has
gathered some valuable reports from various parts of the country,
which show how general the infestation was. I have simply
endeavoured to collect notes from correspondents with regard to
the plague of wasps in our own county.
St. Albans. — I had two nests in my garden wall at Avenue
House in such a position as to make it almost impossible to destroy
them. Mr. H. Lewis says: "Considerable damage was done by
the plague of wasps to our garden fruit last summer. Especially
was this the case with the Victoria plums. Those left on the trees
were quite spoilt, and when we attempted to gather the fruit we
found in many instances only the skins left; the rest were in
nearly every case full of wasps. When on a fishing expedition,
the wasps attacked the fish as soon as caught, and every few yards
along the river's bank wasps* nests were observed, although many
had been destroyed but a short time before. On relating this to
Mr. G. Dickinson, of Dyers Hall, Harlington, Beds, I foimd that
his experience was much the same. He told me of a friend whose
roach were attacked almost as soon as caught, and said that the
wasps will very soon eat away a hole in the fish." Miss Ormerod,
in her report, also gives some information with regard to the wasp-
plague at St. Albans. Mr. Nutting writes from the Gardens,
Child wickbury : ** We suffered, as others did, more than usual last
year from the depredations of wasps, but I think not so much so as
those living on a lighter, warmer soil. I have invariably noticed
that the warmer the soil the more wasps there are. As we are on
a cold stiff clay, we are not so much troubled with them. With
regard to exceptional damage done, beyond the destruction of more
fruit than usual, especially plums, I do not think that I have any-
thing to report. We prevented them from getting into the vineries,
otherwise we should have sustained a loss there, as they seem to
be particularly fond of grapes. Next to grapes, plums seem to
be favoured by them, and the manner in which they work together
and clean out the fruit is interesting. They usually cut into the
fruit a short distance from the stem, on what might be termed the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
A. E. GIBBS — THE WASP INFESTAnOK OF 1893. 23
shoulder of the fruit, and clean it out thoroughly, leaving only the
bare skin. I have taken out 20, and sometimes more, from a single
fruit ; they seem to get intoxicated. Certainly, if careful, one may
take the whole lot one by one, and destroy them without being
stung. I have cleared out several in this manner without being
attacked. I do not know of any attack on man or beast, nor, with
the exception of the cases I have read about, have I ever known
wasps to attack anyone unless in self-defence. I do not consider
them to be half so pugnacious as bees, and personally the sting
from a wasp is not nearly so bad as that from a bee. "When
gathering fruit I have had them walk over my hands and arms and
never offer to sting. A great many ways and means of destroying
them were advanced last season, but the most effective and least
dangerous is gas-tar. I have destroyed many nests, and have
always found this to be the safest method. If you suffocate them
with powder, cyanide of potassium, or anything else, the chances
are that some recover. To be sure of them they have to be dug
out, and this means labour and often disfigurement of surroundings,
whereas gas -tar carefully poured into the hole finds its way into
the nest, and does its work effectually; only in cases where tar
cannot be applied would I use anything else. It is generally
supposed that whatever you use to exterminate the wasps must be
used after dark, otherwise you lose a quantity of them, but this is
not the case where tar can be applied, as I found out last summer.
I discovered a strong nest in the park here one day, and poured
the tar in about seven o'clock in the evening. I may here add a
word as to wasps attacking people. Although scores were hover-
ing over the hole, not one offered to attack me. Had I attempted
to drive them in any way I should have probably got the worst of
it. I besmeared the ground around the hole, and the next morning
it was covered with wasps which had exhausted themselves in
attempting to get into the nest; the whole lot were totally de-
stroyed. Only two unfinished nests of tree-wasps came under my
observation. Some years ago, when living in Lancashire, we often
noticed them suspended in big rhododendron bushes." Mr. F. W.
{Silvester, of Hedges, St. Albans, tells me that there was a wasps'
nest in one of his fields, and that the insects attacked the horses
and men so severely that he was obliged to leave a piece of land
unploughed until the nest had been destroyed. Mr. Silvester, like
most of my correspondents, complains of the destruction of his
plums and apples, but informs me that the peaches were not so
badly injured.
Berkhahsted. — Mr. F. Q. Lane, of The Nurseries, writes:
"There was here as elsewhere an enormous number of nests,
and we never before saw so many nests built in trees; one in a
small spruce-fir was quite as large as a football, which is unusual
about here, the nests mostiy being about the size of a cricket-ball."
Watfokd. — Dr. Brett has favoured me with the following notes :
— ** Mr. D. Hill, of Herga, Watford, said that ho destroyed about
seventy queen wasps in the spring of 1893, and at least twelve
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 A. E. GIBBS — THE WASP nrFBBTATIOir OF 1893,
nests during the summer. His method was to place a piece of
cyanide of potassium about the size of a wabiut into the hole, and
then a little water. It should be done twice occasionally, because
the cyanide does not always kill the grubs, and then they come out
afterwards. A wasp never comes out again. Mr. Sainsbury, next
door, had two nests in a shed. Mr. W. E. Moore, of Westfield,
had one built on a tree. The specimen is in the Public Library
now. Much injury was done to wall-fruit. The tom-tits began
eating the fruit and the wasps finished it off.''
Elstreb. — Mr. W. J. Belderson says : " The antiquated methods
of pouring tar into the hole and firing it, and of making a ' devil '
with gunpowder (gunpowder damped, put in the mouth of the hole
and fibred, and a clot of dirt placed* over it), have been superseded by
a more efPectual means. A table-spoonful of cyanide of potassium
put into the hole completely destroys every wasp that comes near
it, and there is no danger horn, the wasps. I destroyed one nest
(of many) last year, a strong one. 1 put in the chemical, and
stood for about five minutes watching the wasps. They kept
coming to the nest in swarms. After that time Mr. Beckett,
the head gardener at Aldenham House, suggested that we should
count them. He timed while two of ns counted, and in two
minutes 270 entered the nest. The wasps flew to the hole, and
then, seeing their dead companions, hovered around, but after a
second made a dart into the hole, and not one came out again.
After an hour had elapsed we dug them out to destroy the comb,
and had about a pint of wasps, all dead. At a grocer's shop in
the neighbourhood a two-cwt. bag of sugar was warehoused
amongst others. Wasps got in, and when tbe bag was weighed
there were barely six stones left, including dead wasps."
Babnet. — The following description of an encounter between a
wasp and a bee is written by Mr. Frank F. Sherrrff, of Brightside,
Ravenscroft Park, High Bamet : — " I witnessed last autumn a
fierce encounter between a wasp and a bee. I was attracted to
a fiower-bed by what I presumed to be the noise and turmoil of a
humble-bee in the web of a spider, but which proved to be a savage
attack upon a honey-bee by a hungry wasp. I am inclined to
believe that the bee was surprised by the wasp on a neighbouring
flower, and that robbery, instigated by the bee*s load of honey, was
the inciting cause. The rapid movements of the combatants as
they tumbled over one another amid the flowers rendered it difficult
at first to distinguish bee from wasp. But as the fight proceeded,
and the fury of the fray gradually subsided, I could see the two
insects in deadly embrace struggling to bring their stings into play.
The bee, encumbered by its honey, to which it still clung with
fatal tenacity, was evidently at a disadvantage, and endeavoured
in vain to escape from the relentless clutch of its assailant. The
wasp, on the other hand, holding its antagonist firmly between its
fore-legs, brought its sting into action and drove it repeatedlv into
the body of its victim. At this period I interfered and tned to
drive away the victor, but it returned again and again to the spot,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Jl. S. QIBB8— the WISF IVFBflTiLTIOV OF 1893. 25
and tearing open the body of its victim, deToored the greater
portion of it, leaving only the head, legs, and wings, and the shell
of its body. Once more I drove away the wasp, and buried the
remnants of its barbarous feast, but it again returned, and for some
time afterwards hovered about the flower-bed, seeking the remains
of its prey."
Smallford.— Mr. Arthur Smith writes: ** I did not see any
tree-wasps' nests, but I took a large one from the inside of a
hollow tree. The greatest damage here was done to apples. In a
small orchard of about a dozen trees I should think there were
quite a dozen bushels of apples completely eaten, besides those
which were commenced, and thereby prevented from keeping.
With regard to plums I have to thank the wasps for teaching me
a " wrinkle " as to fruit-preservation. We had the greater part of
the plums picked before they were anything like ripe, in the case
of greengages when they were just hard, before they were good
enough for wasps to eat, and bottled them, without cooking, by
merely pouring over them hot syrup, and they have during the
winter turned out splendidly. Had these means not been adopted,
I do not suppose the wasps would have allowed one to ripen. We
were fortunate to escape any attacks either upon man or beast, but
every nest was treated witii a pint or so of gas-tar as soon as dis-
covered, a remedy, or rather destroyer, which we found both the
cheapest and most efficient. I am sorry I did not keep an account
of the number of nests destroyed."
Hatfieu). — Mr. T. Brown, of Symonds Hyde, Hatfield, informs
me that he destroyed a great number of nests during the season.
His method was to work at night by the aid of a lantern, when the
insects would fly to the light and not attack the person operating.
He recommends cyanide of potassiimi, and to use it effectuallv he
stops the entrance to the nest up, ascertains the exact position of the
nest, and makes a hole direct into it, through which he pours the
cyanide. The stragglers may be killed in the morning. Nests
should be destroyed early, before the colony gets strong. No
hanging nests were noticed. He found the wasps very troublesome
in destroying the fruit crop. Three trees of Quarrendon pippins,
an early sweet apple, were attacked first. The apples that fell
during the night had a place as big as the tip of the fbiger eaten in
them by six or seven o'clock in the morning, and during the day
the apple was almost entirely cleared out. Two hornets were
killed in the house.
Welwtk. — Mr. T. B. Blow writes that his experience was as
follows : — "Though we had a perfect plague of wasps, yet mv bees
did not suffer at idl. When the wasps appeared so plentifully we
narrowed all the entrances to the hives, and thus stopped any
attempt of the wasps to enter the hives. A large number of
wasps' nests were destroyed, and in this way the numbers were
rapidly diminished."
HiTOHiN. — A most interesting report comes from Mr. Eichard
Shillitoe, of Bancroft, Hitchin. It is as follows : — ** The number
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26 A. E. GIBBS — THE WASP INFESTATION OF 189S.
of ground-wasps' nests in our neighbourhood was, of course,
exceptionally large, as many as twenty or more nests having
been destroyed in a single bank. We also had an unusual number
of pensile or hanging nests, taken from hedges, bushes, out-
buildings, etc. I have six or eight very beautiful specimens in
glass cases. I do not think that there was any increase in the
number of hornets. One or two interesting points in reference
to the hybernation of the queen wasps have lately come under
my observation, which I think rather tend to show that queen
wasps are not so easily destroyed by hard frosts as some people
imagine. Instead of hybemating in solitary state under the
bark of trees, etc., they appear to have swarmed together this
year in large numbers. In a heap of stones near Ickleford
Gate-house on the Bedford Boad, large numbers were found by
the road-men who were turning the stones over before putting
them on the road. The wasps had simply crept into the interstices
between the stones, and there established themselves for the
winter. In another place, at St. Ibbs, near Hitchin, a quantity
(said to be about 200) of queen wasps were found in an old piece
of sail-cloth or canvas that had been put outside upon the roof
of a shed. It was blown off during a gale of wind, and was found
to be saturated with rain-water, and a * teapotfull ' of wasps was
taken out of it and thrown into the fire. They had evidently
passed through the severe frosty weather that we had about
Christmas, on the top of the roof with no other protection than
a piece of canvas. If queen wasps are capable of hybemating
safely under such circumstances, and in such numbers, I am afraid
we are likely to have a greater wasp-plague than ever next year,
unless the nests and young are destroyed by imfavourable weather
in the spring."
The above reports show how very general the infestation was.
I fear that we shall not escape very easily this year, for the
number of queens flying about just now is unusual. 1 found
one queen hybemating among my botanical specimens. They will
creep into any convenient comer, and I fancy the "swarming"
alluded to by Mr. Shillitoe is accidental rather than intentionsd,
and that the queens found that the spots mentioned would make
convenient winter quarters, and therefore took possession singly
and not en masse, 1 beg to thank my correspondents for tiie
trouble they have taken to send me information.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
REPORT ON PHENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA OBSERVED IN
HERTFORDSHIRE DURING THE YEAR 1893.
By Edwabd Mawlet, F.R.Met.Soc., F.R.H.S.,
Phenological Recorder to the Royal Meteorological Society.
Head at Watford, 17 th Aprils 1894.
I AM pleased to be able to record that since the last Report was
issued there has been a welcome increase in the number of
obserrers, the following new stations having been added to the
list — Broxboume, Watford, Radlett, and Baldock. The distribution
of the observing stations is also very satisfactory, the southern
part of the county being represented by Watford and Radlett,
the south-east by Broxboume, the west by Berkhamsted, the north
by Hitchin and Baldock, while the central portion finds repre-
sentatives at St. Albans and Hertford.
The following list shows the localities represented, their approxi-
mate heights above sea-level, and the names of the observers.
Station.
Height a1
Sea-lev
^J® Obsbevbr.
Broxboume (Wormley Bury)
Watford (The Platte) _
160 fee
240 ,
320 ,
380 ,
400 ,
300 ,
400 ,
370 ,
140 ,
230 ,
260 ,
jt. Lady Frances Bushby.
, Mrs. G. E. Bishop.
, H. J. Lubbock.
, Mrs. J. Hopkinson.
Miss E. F. Smith.
, Henry Lewis.
, Mrs. E. Mawley.
J. J. Willis.
, W. Graveson.
, J. E. Little, M.A.
, H. G. Fordham.
Radlett (Newberries)
St. Albana (The Grange)
St. AlbauB (Addiscombe Lodge)
St. Albans (Worley Road)
Berkhamsted (Rosebank) ^
Harpenden
Hertford
Hitchin
Baldock (Odsey) „.. „
The plants on the list came into flower as a rule in the different
localities in the following order — Hertford I, Hitchin 2, St. Albans
3. Broxboume 4, Harpenden 6, Great Berkhamsted 6, and
Watford 7. Placed in this way all the old stations arrange them-
selves, as in the two previous years, according to their respective
heights above sea-level, the lower levels giving the earlier, and the
higher the later, dates. This, however, is not the case with the
new stations, judging by the observations sent in last year.
The Winter of 1892-93.
During December the weather remained fairly mild until just
before Christmas, when a severe frost set in which lasted four
weeks. After this long frost had broken up, mild weather again
mostly prevailed until the close of the season. The memorable
frost of this winter proved very trying to vegetation generally, but
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28
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OfBSSETED nr HSBTFOBSSHIRE DT 1893. 29
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
30 E.. 1UWLEY — ^PHEirOLOGICAL PHEVOMENJl
was, on the whole, less destructive than the frosts of either of the
two previous winters. Two half-hardy plants growing in my own
garden at Berkhamsted, however, which had passed without serious
injury through the previous eight winters, fell victims to this one,
viz., montbretias and globe artichokes. This was no doubt owing
to the exceptional depth to which the frost penetrated the ground,
and to the long period the soil around their roots remained frozen.
To the agriculturist this was a very unsatisfactory season. The
prolonged frost not only prevented the working of the land, but
also destroyed the turnips, and in February the ground was again
rendered unworkable owing to the continuous and heavy rain]^.
In the gardens the winter frosts, for the third year in succession,
committed sad havoc among the vegetables. The last rose blooms
of the season were destroyed by cold and wet in my garden at
Berkhamsted on the 6th of December, which is twelve days earlier
than the average date of their destruction in the previous eight
years.
In all parts of the county the hazel was backward in flowering.
According to the mean date given at the end of the table it was,
at Ave of the six stations sending in returns, from a week to ten
days late. The song-thrush was first heard about a fortnight later
than usual, while the honey-bee visited flowers, at three out of
the four stations recording its first appearance, on the same day,
February 19th, which is rather more than three weeks behind the
average date.
The Spbhtg.
This was a most remarkable season. In March there occurred
only two unseasonably cold days, in April but four, and in May
again but two. The total rainfall amounted to less than one-fourth
of the mean for the quarter, while the sun shone on an average for
rather more than seven hours a day.
The greatest sufferers from the continued drought were shallow-
rooted plants. Trees and shrubs, on the other hand, appeared
to be in no way injuriously affected, having at that time an
abundant supply of moisture to draw upon in the subsoil, owing
to the heavy February rains. Most of the spring wild flowers
made their appearance singularly early, but the continued heat and
drought caused them to fade rapidly, and to make but poor growth.
The spring com was planted in most places under very favourable
conditions, but germinated very slowly, while the grass made but
very little progress. The observer at Addiscombe Lodge, St. Albans,
states that some sweet-peas which were sown on March 20th did
not appear above ground until April 18th. The fruit trees and
other flowering trees and shrubs blossomed abundantly, but the
display of bloom was soon over.
The coltsfoot, as usual, flowered very irregularly, being earlier
than the average in some districts, and later in others, and the
same may be said of the wood-anemone. But towards the end
of March the continued heat began to tell, and from that time
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSEBTSD m HERTFORDSHIRE IS 1893. 31
the flowering of all plants took place in advance of the mean.
For instance, hlackthom blossomed from a week to ten days earlier
than usual, garlic hedge-mustard about a fortnight earlier, horse-
chestnut about three weeks earlier, hawthorn from three weeks
to a month earlier, the white ox-eye about ten days earlier, the
dog-rose more than three weeks earlier, and the black knapweed
also fully three weeks in advance of its average date.
The swallow was reported as having been first seen at four
stations a few days earlier, and at three a few days later, than
the mean date. The cuckoo was first heard at most stations a few
days behind its usual time. The nightingale at all but one station
was a few days late.
The dates sent in for the first wasp vary greatly, ranging from
March 16th to April 29th, but the small white butterfly was seen
in most districts from a few days to a fortnight early, while the.
orange-tip butterfly was about three weeks early.
The Summer.
This proved another very dry and warm season, while the record
of bright sunshine was greater than in any summer since that of
the Jubilee year, 1887. June and August were singularly hot and
dry months, but during the greater ptirt of July the weather was
only moderately warm, and rain fell at frequent intervals.
Owing to the continued drought, which may be said to have
lasted from the beginning of March until the end of the first week
in July— or for eighteen weeks — vegetation suffered severely. The
grass was burnt up in the pastures, and where cut for hay yielded
one of the lightest crops on record. In Sir John Lawes' grass'
experiments at Rothamsted, the plot which never receives any
manure yielded 3 cwt. of hay per acre instead of its usual average
of 21 cwt. ; and the plot the most heavily manured yielded 23 cwt.
per acre instead of an average of 57 cwt. The com made but poor
growth, and came to maturity remarkably early. At Harpenden
Sie cutting of winter oats began during the first week in July.
The refreshing rains of July improved the grass lands for a time,
but towards the end of the season they were becoming as bare as
ever, owing to the dry weather again setting in during August.
Strawberries proved in most places- a poor crop, while bush-fruits on
the other hand were as a rule abundant.
Two of the summer plants on the list having flowered during
the previous season, only two others remain for notice here
— the harebell and the greater bindweed. The harebell was a few
days late in flowering at the only two stations at which it was
noted. This plant, owing no doubt to its shallow roots, suffered
more than any of the others. In fact the great drvness of the
ground appeai^ed to retard both its growth and flowenng consider-
ably. The greater bindweed, on the contrary, being deep-rooted,
came into blossom more in advance of its average date than any of
the other twelve plants — the variation from the average amounting
at two stations to as much as six weeks.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
32 £. MAWLET— PHSrOLOeiCAL PHSlfOiaEHA DT 1893.
Ths AuTUiar.
The weather was moderately warm during Septemher and
October, but in November there occurred frequent slight frosts at
night. Indeed, November was the first month which had been in
any way unseasonably cold for ten months. The second drought of
the year, which set in during the second week in August, lasted
throughout September, and was more distressing to vegetation
generally than the previous one, owing to the greater dryness of
the subsoil. Between Apnl 2nd and July dlst no rain-water at all
came through the 2i feet of uncropped soil in either of my percola-
tion-gauges. This may be regarded as the first drought of the
year. Again, in part of August and the whole of September, or
during the second drought, no measurable quantity of water passed
through either of these gauges. Pastures were again brown and
parched, the root-crops were at a standstill, apples and pears
ripened prematurely, and few flowers were to be seen in either
hedgerows or gardens. The frequent and heavy rains of October,
coming upon ground singularly warm for the time of year, the
whole aspect of the landscape was soon transformed. The pastures
became green again, the roots improved rapidly, and the land was
soon in splendid order for getting in the autumn com. The second
flowering of many trees and shrubs, as well as of some herbaceous
plants, was one of the most noteworthy features of this season, and
was almost everywhere noted. All wild fruits, except holly-
berries, were unusually plentiful.
The yield of the com crops of all kinds was much below the
average, but the grain, as a rule, proved of excellent quality.
Apples and pears yielded somewhat irregularly, but were on the
whole good crops.
The last plant on the list, the ivy, came into flower about a
fortnight in advance of its average date.
Swallows took their departure nearly a week earlier than in
1891, and more than three weeks earlier than in 1892.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
VI.
EEPORT ON THE BAINFALL IN HERTFORDSHIRE IX THE
YEAR 1893.
By JoHw HopiDTMiT, F.L.8., F.G.S., F R.Met.Soc.
lUad at Watford, 17M April, 1894.
Thb number of our ramfall observers in the year 1 893 is greater
than in any previous year, the records entered in our principal
table being 40, an increase of four upon the number for the year
1 892. The number of daily records received shows a still greater
increase, being 33, or six more than that for the previous year.
Of the stations for which records appeared in the table for 1892,
one only is omitted this year, — Kytes, Watford, — ^no reply to my
applications having been received from the observer there. Against
this one loss there are five additions, records having been received
from Bancroft, Hitchin ; Pendley Manor, Tring ; Frogmore, and the
Cohie Valley Water Works, Watford; and Brocket Hall, Welwyn.
These alterations increase the number of stations in the river-
district of the Hiz from three to four, in that of the Upper Thame
from one to two, in that of the Lower €k)lne from three to four,
and in that of the Mimram also from three to four.
Particulars of the 40 lainfall stations, and the monthly and total
lain&dl and number of days on which at least 0*01 inch of rain
fell, or, when the measurement is taken to thousandths of an inch,
0005 inch, are given in Tables I and II, pp. 35-37.
A supplementary table (Table III, p. 38) gives five other records
of the total rainfall in the year. Two of these are the records of
additional gauges at Bothamsted, and three are taken from *• British
Bainfall, 1 893.' The rainfall returned for Aldenham House, Elstree,
is not here given, the record being incomplete.
The mean rainMl in the county in the year 1893 was 22*56
inches. This is 4*18 inches below the mean for the decade
1880-89, and 3*87 inches below that for the half -century
1840-89.* The year was therefore a decidedly dry one.
This is the third year in succession with about twice as much
rain in the second half as in the first. The fall in the first half of
1891 was 9*57 ins., in the second half, 20*05 ins. ; in the first half
of 1892, 8*67 ins., in the second half, 16*07 ins.; in the first half
of 1893, 7*35 ins., in the second half, 15*21 ins. The defect in the
first six months of 1893 is entirely due to the dryness of the four
months March to June, January and February having together
4*98 ins., or 2*49 ins. per month on the average, while March,
April, May, and June had an aggregate rainfall of 2*37 ins., giving
an average monthly fall of only 0*59 in.
Droughts in 1893. — According to the definitions of Mr. Symons
(in ^ British Rainfall ') an '^ absolute drought " Ib a period of more
• See * Trans. Herti. Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. VI, p. 84.
VOL. Vni.— PAUT u. 3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
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))
23
34 J. HOPKIWSON — ^BSPOBT ON THE
than 14 consecutive days without any rain, and a " partial
drought" is a period of more than 28 consecutive days with an
aggregate rainfall not exceeding 0*01 in. per diem. The great
dryness of the spring of 1893 will be best brought out by an
analysis of such droughts which have occurred in it at the 33
stations for which we have daily records of the rainMl.
Of absolute droughts there were three : (I) in March and April,
(2) in May, (3) in June. The first of these was an absolute
drought at all stations, lasting for
31 days, March 17 to April 16, at 2 stations.
„ 16, „ 10 „
The two stations at which rain is not recorded to have fallen
on the 16th of April are Cowroast and Welwyn Rectory; rain
(001 in.) fell on the 22nd of March at Odsey and Bennington
House, reducing the length of the drought at those stations to 24
days. The average duration of this drought was 29j days.
The second absolute drought lasted for
16 days, April 30 to May 15, at 1 station.
15 „ „ 30 „ „ 14, „ 6 stations.
The third lasted for
16 days, June 6 to June 21, at 1 station.
1^ » >» 6 >» 99 20, „ I „
15 „ „ 7 „ „ 21, „ 3 stations
The Old Nurseries, Cheshunt, is the station at which no rain fell
on the 15th of May ; Frogmore, Watford, is that at which none fell
from the 6th to the 2l6t of June.
A partial drought extended throughout the months of March
and April and through the greater part of May, its duration being
from about eleven to thirteen weeks. It prevailed at all the
stations, and lasted for
89 days, March 1 to May 28, at 3 stations.
88 „ ,, 2 ,, „ 28, ,, 3 ,,
78 „ Feb. 28 „ „ 16, „ 10 „
77 „ March 1 „ „ 16, „ 8 „
76 ,, ,, 2 ,, ,, 16, „ 9 ,,
The difference of ten days or more in the duration of the
partial drought at the different stations is chiefly due to the varia-
tion in the fall of rain during a thunderstorm which occurred on
the 17th of May. The average rainfall on this day at the six
stations with a partial drought of 88 or 89 days was 0*30 in. ; at
the twenty-seven stations with a partial drought of 76 to 78 days
it was 0-47 in. The stations at which the partial drought lasted
for 89 days are Royston, Odsey, and New Bamet ; those at which
it lasted for 88 days are Therfield, Much Hadham, and Bayford-
bury, Hertford. Its average duration was 79 days.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BAIKFALL IN HEBTFORDSHIBB IN 1893.
S^
Table I. — Hebtfobdshibe Kaikfall Stations, 1893.
"8
1
4.
ft
6.
10.
tt
t»
>»
12.
f>
If
»»
13.
>»
14.
»
»
15.
17.
»»
>»
18.
Station.
•Royston
•Odfley ...
♦flitchin— The Firs
„ The Maples
• ,, Bancroft
• „ High Down
•Tring — Elm House ....
f, Pendley Manor .
•Cowroast .
'Berkhamsted — Rosehank
Obsbbtsb.
•Great Oaddesden Vicarage...
•H. Hempstead— Apsley Mills
• „ Nash Mills
♦Kensworth— The GroTe ...
Harpenden — Rothamsfced .
•St. Albaofl — Gorhambury ...
• „ The Grange ...
•Watford— Oaklands
• ,, Frogmore
„ ColneValWaterWks
Rickmansworth — Moor Park
•Welwyn Rectory
•Hatfield— Brocket Hall..
•Datchworth Rectory
Hertford— Marden Hill..
Fairhill W. Bonner Hopkins..
Rev. W. T. Drake
J. Dickinson & Co.
•Steyenage— Weston Patk ..
• ,, Bennington House ..
•Therfield Rectory
•Throcking Rectory...
•Buntingf ord — Hamels Park
•MuchHadham
•Hertford— Bar
•Ware— Red House .
• ,, Fanhams Hall .
•Broxboume — Stafford House
•Cheshunt— Old Nurseries ...
,, College
•New Bamet — Gas Works ...
•Southgate — The Lawns
Hale Wortham
H. George Fordham
William Lucas
William Hill
Francis Ransom
Joseph Pollard
E. J. Le Quesne
J. G. Williams
Rupert Thomas
Edward Mawley
Diameter Height of Gauge
Miss S. Grace Jones
Lawes and Gilbert ..
Hon. Wm. Grimston
John Hopkinson
Edward Harrison
Arthur P. Blathwayt
William Verini
Lord Ebury
Rev. Canon Wingfield
Lord Mount Stephen
Rev. J. Wardale ... .
Richard Hoare
M. R.Pryor
Rev. Dr. Parker
Rev. J. G. Hale ....
Rev. C. W. Harvey .
E. Wallis
T. Woodham Mott
W. Clinton Baker
Joseph Francis
Miss Joyce Croft...
G. J. Newbery
Paul and Son
Rev. Dr. Reynolds
T. H. Martin
George A. Church
of
Gauge.
ins.
8
5
5
8
24
12
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
above
Ground. Sea-level
ft int.
6
1 o
2 I
I I
9
1 I
1 2
2 O
4 2
I O
I o
5 6
I o
1 o
2 O
4
1 o
I o
o 6
8
1 o
4 3
I o
I o
I o
ft.+
2695
260 T
238 T
220^
212 X
422^
460
500 P
345 L
401 tT
550 T
427^
260
237 T
630 B
420 T
425 T
380 /|N
273 T
182
220
340 T
228 T
250
386 T
257 T
470 T
408 ;r
500
484 T
400T
222 B
250
112T
253 T
118T
92 T
94 T
212
240 T
• Daily fall received for these stations.
t For explanation of these symbols see Vol. YII, p. 53.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
36
7. HOPKIKSOIf — BEPOBT OK THE
Table II. — Baikfall ts
RiTBK District.
QQ
. Rhee
5 I 3. Hiz
H
I I 4.Up.Thame J
I
00
H
w
BQ
o
6. Balbonme
7. Gade
8. Ver
10. Lo. Colne
12. Mimram
13. Beane
14. Rib
16. Ash
17. UpperLea J
18. LowerLea^
Station.
RoystoiL.
Odsey^....
Hitchin— The Firs
„ The Maples..^
,, Bancroft
„ High Down....
Tring — Elm House
„ Pendley Manor
Cowroast
Berkhamsted-
-Rosebank
FairhiU ..
Great Gaddesden Vicarage ....
Hemel Hempsted — Apsley Mills
„ Nash Mills ^
Eensworth — The Grore „...«..«..«
Harpenden — Rothamsted
St. Albans — Gorhambury ...„
„ The Grange
Watford— Oaklands
„ Frogmore «. „„ ^..
„ ColneValleyWaterWorks
Rickmansworth— Moor Park
Welwjn Rectory
Hatfield— Brocket Hall ....
Datchworth Rectory
Hertford— Marden Hill ^
Stevenage— Weston Park
Bennington House
Therfield Rectory
Throcking Rectory
Buntingford— Hamek Park
Much Hadham ..^ „ ««.
Hertford— Bajrfordbury ,
Ware — Red House
,, Fanhams Hall .^.
Broxbonme — Stafford House ,
Cheshunt — Old Nurseries .
„ College
New Bamet— Gas Works «....
Southgate — The Lawns ««.„....
Mean for the County
Jan.
ins.
1-63
r6i
1-65
1-88
1*95
1-97
2-15
2*05
2-05
2'12
2'OI
1-93
176
1-93
1-91
I 96
2-OI
2-05
1-87
;:?i
1-91
1*94
179
160
1-88
169
2-12
178
180
1-88
167
174
1-45
1-58
1-63
I -61
1-59
182
FsB.
inf.
2*92
2-63
308
309
3-i6
260
3-46
3-61
3*57
369
363
348
324
298
3-80
346
352
336
3-61
3*37
3'3i
3*92
324
2-84
306
3*14
299
2-91
317
289
272
2-87
300
2*46
2-68
285
301
283
320
303
316
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SAINFALL nr HERTFORBSHIHB IN 1893,
87
HESiroiiDSHraB in 1893.
Apl.
Mat.
JUNB.
July.
Aug.
Sbpt.
Oct.
Not.
Dbc.
1 Yrar.
Days.
ins.
•13
•15
int.
77
ins.
•66
•92
int.
348
360
im.
2-49
315
int.
I 01
129
int.
311
334
ins.
inf.
I 62
1-43
ins.
20-52
21*01
146
167
•93
•91
I 02
142
•78
•89
2*34
2*37
259
316
240
242
251
252
i-io
1-39
127
1*23
3-62
398
2-34
2-35
2-22
2-19
190
204
1-72
174
2077
20*92
21-53
2214
155
160
159
•18
•25
•83
IIO
:||
252
2-68
165
105
•89
1*04
3-88
420
270
292
260
21*12
22*60
•M
•18
•20
•19
•96
•86
1-26
■64
275
214
217
1-83
2*33
231
1*21
IIO
103
391
4*21
405
262
317
309
246
2^75
2-85
22*80
2394
24II
IS
•25
•15
•10
i-oi
I 02
•96
•83
•90
72
265
2-12
224
2-i8
2l8
•90
III
124
425
4-59
496
330
2-52
274
2-66
2-50
2*43
2437
2278
2278
159
153
151
•32
•22
•14
•94
l'20
165
130
72
2-88
292
348
306
2*33
228
302
2-IO
IIO
109
IIO
108
4*43
4*35
4-85
507
2^81
2-58
306
289
217
rji
2-8i
2-41
24-45
2382
2680
2500
144
151
170
•10
•06
116
I'02
1
263
2*97
2-66
278
2-42
224
I 60
2-20
142
1*55
123
1*39
5-89
580
606
675
280
2-41
226
3"
275
270
2628
2530
2V61
28-77
157
150
165
•13
•14
132
115
•69
•68
2*40
303
239
2*37
316
235
3*45
301
123
116
'^
•87
396
409
3"
2-ii
215
274
2*22
238
2-IO
215
2218
22-68
21-80
21 22
146
'•'d
1-24
I 20
59
•58
408
274
3-6i
273
''U
416
356
2-33
2*53
195
225
24-55
21-54
152
159
•15
•14
•II
•81
•95
I-2I
72
401
3-86
309
340
300
215
1-22
1-32
•93
3-88
306
2'20
216
246
213
2353
22-34
2094
161
168
137
-16
I -02
•82
248
2-58
•85
2-94
284
2^52
21-35
143
"II
•10
-II
•94
115
123
•ss
261
218
2-57
2-35
2-5J
278
•88
78
71
291
320
328
260
2*33
2-59
2-39
2038
1979
21-50
152
135
159
•II
•10
•10
•04
•21
•99
I-I4
•91
I 00
•84
•64
•76
240
2-8S
290
2*44
238
275
2-56
208
172
1
•67
•93
107
342
3;4i
2-55
2*39
2-33
232
2*31
2*22
212
224
2-S2
2-33
2056
21-32
2058
2042
2032
162
141
138
180
•15
105
76
278
246
108
400
2-56
2-33
2256
154
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38
J. H0PKIN80K — BEPOBT GS THE
Table III. — Supplementakt to Tables I aitd II.
1
Stetion.
Observer.
Gauge.
Rain-
fall.
Days.
Dia-
meter.
Height
above
Sea.
8.
t«
10.
12.
17.
Harpenden — Rothamsted
Watford— Kyte8'„.„
Welwyn — Danesbnry «...
Hertford— Haileybiiry.....
Sir J. Lawesand)
SirH.Gnbert.....)
Mrs. Horsman ....
A. M. Blake
A. A. Lea
ins.
8
72x87
5
5
5
feet.
420
420
239
260
ins.
2380
25- 10
2389
2272
2238
H5
156
141
145
142
Distribution of Rainfall throughout the Year. — Of the total rainfell
32i 7o ^^^ during the winter months (Jan., Feh., and Dec.), 7 %
during the spring (March to May), 26^ ^j^ during the summer
(June to Aug.), and 34 % during the autumn (Sept. to Nov.>.
The fall during each quarter and each season, and the deviation
from the mean for the half -century 1840-89, was as follows : —
Fall. Diff. Fall. Diff.
Ist qnarter.„....... 6*39 ins. —0*24 in. Winter .«««««.... 7*31 ins. -f 1*68 in.
2nd „ ««...« 1-96 —4*06 Spring 161 —4-40
Srd „ 6-32 —0*99 Summer 6*00 -1-32
4ih „ 8-89 +1*41 Autumn 7*64 +017
April was excessively dry; March and June also were very dry ;
February was very wet; October was excessively wet. The
difference in each month from the mean for the half-century was —
in. in. in. in.
Jan. ...« —0*49 ApriL... —1*63 July ._ +0-28 Oct. ... +106
Feb +1*46 May..„. —1*08 Aug..... +008 Nov.....
Mar...... —1*20 June..... —1*34 Sept —1*36 Dec +0*36
Thus the fall for the first two months was about an inch above
the mean for the period, for the next four months more than Jive
inches below the mean, and for the last six months nearly half an
inch above the mean.
The absolute maximum fall in any one day in each month,' and
the station recording it was —
Jan. 26— Bancroft, Hitcbin....
Feb. 21— Bennington House..
Mar. 1— Red House, Ware....
April 20— TheGroTe.Kensw'tb
May 17— TbeGrange,S.Alb'n8
June 27— Colne V^ey Water
Works
ins.
0*39
0-69
0*38
017
0*93
0*38
ins.
2*18
0*92
July 12— Gorbambury
Aug. 30— Datchworth Rectory
Sept. 8 — The Maples, and
Bancroft, Hitchin 0-69
Oct. 9— Moor Park . 8*11
Nov. 14— Much Hadham 0-85
Dec. 20— Red House, Ware 066
The wettest day in each month at the 40 stations was —
January 9tb at 2 stations, 26th at 37, 6tb and 26th at 1.
February 21st at 28, 22nd at 1, 26th at 4, 27tb at 3, 2nd and 2lBt at 1, 2l8t
and 27th at 2, 22nd and 26th at 1.
March Ist at 34, 3rd at 3, 16th at 2, 1st and 3rd at 1.
April 16th at 20, 17th at 2, 19th at 2, 20th at 3, 29th at 10, 16th and 29th
at 2, 17th and 29th at 1.
May 17th at 32, 20th at 1, 29th at 7.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
&AINFALL nr HEBTV0BD8EIBB IK 1893.
39
Jme 8rd at 1, 6th at 2, lOtli at 1, 22iid at 23, 27tli at 11, 6th aod 27th at 2.
July 9th at 3, 12th at 11, 19th at 8, 23rd at 4, 25th at 2, 26th at 10, 30th at
1, I9tha]id26thatl.
August Ist at 5, 3rd at 5, 4th at 1, 5th at 1, 9th at 4, 22nd at 1, 23rd at 5,
3l8t at 16, Ist and 9th at 1, let and 23rd at 1.
September 8th at 13, 19th at 11, 26th at 5, 28th at 8, 8th and 25th at 1, 19th
and 28th at 2.
October 9th at all stations.
Koyember 14th at 19, 18th at 1, 25th at 20.
December 8th at 1, 12th at 21, 13th at 1, 20th at 16, 8th and 12th at 1.
The day in each month on which a heavy fall of rain was most
general over the county was therefore —
Jan. 26th April 16th July 12th Oct. 9th
Feb. 21st May 17th Aug. 31 st Not. 26th
March Ist June 22nd Sept. 8th Dec. 12th
The number of wet days in the year (average of 36 gauges) was
154, being 14 below the mean for the 20 years 1870-89. Of the
total number there were 67 (or 37 per cent.) in the winter months,
16 (or lOi per cent.) in the spring, 39 (or 25 J per cent.) in the
summer, and 42 (or 27 J per cent.) in the autumn.
The average number of wet days in each month, and the deviation
from the mean for the 20 years 1870-89, was as follows : —
Jan. 20 +5 April 8 —10
Feb. 21 +7 May 8 — 5
March 5 — 8 June 9 — 4
Oct. 16+1
Nor. 15 —1
Dec. 16 e
July 18 +4
Aug. 12 —1
Sept 11 —2
Distribution of Main/all throughout the County. — ^The following
table (Table lY) gives the mean fall for each month and for the
year in each of the five river-districts represented, and in the two
main hydrographical divisions of the county, the catchment-basins
of the Great Ouse and the Thames, and also the difference in the
year from the mean for the decade 1880-89.
Table IV. — Rainpaxl is the Rivee Distbicts.
MOKTHS.
Cam.
Itbl.
Thamb.
COLNB.
Lba.
0U8B.
Thames.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Jan. _
1-62
''71
206
1*95
174
1-68
r8s
Feb. _
277
298
3*53
3-50
294
2-91
320
March
•22
•37
•35
•49
•38
•32
•43
^t...
•14
•24
•22
•14
•12
•21
•14
•96
I -07
•96
I -08
104
1-03
105
June .....
79
•82
•61
•88
•67
•81
•75
July «...
3*54
262
2-6o
270
2-82
292
276
Augu«t
2-82
2-46
'•35
2-22
270
258
2-44
Sept „
IIS
125
•96
118
•96
1*22
4-08
October
3-22
370
4-04
494
3-42
354
Nor. _
2 0I
2-27
281
2-8i
246
2- 19
263
Dec. ....
1-52
1-85
2-37
2-68
2*25
174
2-43
Tear
2076
21-34
21 86
2460
2150
21-15
22-8l
Diff.from
1880-89
—274
-3-93
— 4*37
-4*05
-2-38
—4-33
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40 J. HOPKIKSOir — ^BEPOBI OK THE
The mean rainfall in each of the minor riTer-basins or 8nl>-
districts represented was as follows : —
ins. ins.
Cam Rhee 20*76 ,Miiiiram 21-97
IvEL Hiz 21-34 ( Beane 23-06
Thamb.^ Upper Thame 21-86 j,^ 1 Rib 22-27
(Bufbourae 23-62 ^^ \ Ash 21-36
Gade 23-31 f Upper Lea. 20-56
Ver 26 02 V Lower Lea 20-64
Lower Colne 26-99
The total yearly fall ranged from 19-79 ins. at the Red House,
Ware, to 28*77 ins. at Moor Park, Rickmansworth ; and the total
monthly fall from 0*04 in. at New Bamet in April, to 6*75 ins. at
Moor Park in October. The greatest fall in any one day was
3* 1 1 ins. at Moor Park on the 9th of October.
Distribution of Rainfall in each Month, — ^The nomenclature used
in the following account of the chief falls of rain is the same as in
my previous reports, falls of at least ^ inch being styled consider-
able, i inch very considerable, 1 inch great, \\ inch very great,
li inch heavy, l} inch very heavy, and of 2 inches and upwards
excessive. This analysis only applies to the 33 stations for which
I have returns of the daily rainfall.
January. — Rainfall a little below the average, but on an un-
usually large number of days, nearly all for the first two or three
weeks in the form of snow, which was sometimes several inches
deep. On no day was there a considerable fall of rain recorded.
There was a silver thaw on the 18th.
Febbuabt. — Rainfall very heavy, and again on a very large
number of days, only seven days being without a sufficient fall to
record. Very little on a few days only fell as snow. On 21st the
&11 was considerable at fourteen stations, and on 26th at one
station.
March. — A very dry month, with rain on very few days, nearly
all falling before the 5th, after which date there was a measurable
quantity only on two days on the average throughout the county,
yielding less than a tenth of an inch (exactly 0*087 in.). On no
day was there a considerable fall of rain recorded.
April. — An excessively dry month, with rain on even a smaller
number of days than in March, at nearly aU stations rain falling
only on 16th, 20th, and 29th. At most stations an absolute
drought of thirty days terminated in the middle of this month.
No considerable fall of rain was recorded.
Mat. — Another very dry month, with rain on very few days,
but not so exceptional in either respect as March or April. About
half the rain recorded in the month fell on the 1 7th, on which day
the fall was veri^ considerable at three stations and considerable at
six. There was also a considerable fall at four stations on 29th.
June. — The fourth very dry month in succession, and with rain
on very few days, nearly all falling after the 21 at. At no station
was a considerable fall recorded.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BAINVALL m HBRTFOBBSHIBB IN 1893. 41
JiTLT. — A. rather wet month, with rain on a large number of
days, mostly between 8th and 26th. On 9th the fall was consider-
able at one station; on 12th it was excessive at Gorhambury
(2*18 ins.), great at Brocket Hall (1-10 in.), very considerable at
three stations, and considerable at one; and on 19th there was a
considerable fall at two stations. On 25th the fall was great at
Boyston (1*04 in.), and considerable at two stations; on 26th it
was great at the Old Nurseries, Cheshunt (1*04 in.), and consider-
able at three stations; and on 30th it was considerable at one
station. Severe thunderstorms occurred in several parts of the
county on the 8th and 9th (Saturday and Sunday). At Royston
on the Saturday a house was struck by the lightning and much
damaged. The chimney was partly demolished, a large portion of
the brickwork of the outer wall being forced out, and the bricks
sent flying a considerable distance. The window-frames were
shattered, and the water-supply pipe was cut in two. At Hertford
on the same day the storm is reported as exceptionally severe, the
rain Mling in torrents and some of the rain-drops being as large in
diameter as a shilling. At Bengeo two horses were struck by the
lightning and killed, and at Thundridge two stacks of straw were
set on fire and totally destroyed. The greatest fall of rain in
either of the two days was 0-52 in. at High Down, Hitchin, on
the Sunday. Thunderstorms also occurred on 25th, 26th, and
31st.
August. — Rainfall a little above the average, on about the usual
number of days. There was a considerable fall on the 1st at four
stations ; on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th, at one ; on the 9th at four ; and
on the 22nd at one. On the 31st the fall was verg considerable
at six stations and considerable at six. There were thunderstorms
on 4th and 10th with heavy rain. On the 4th, at Batch worth
Rectory, 0*44 in. fell in 20 minutes; and on the 10th, at Rose-
bank, Berkhamsted, 0*52 in. fell in the same time. At St. Albans
on the loth the lightning was very vivid, the rain torrential for a
few minutes, and large hailstones fell. As this storm occurred at
about 3 a.m. the rain was of course registered to the 9th.
Septbmbeb. — Rainfall very small, and on rather less than the
average number of days. Most of the rain fell during the latter
part of the month. On 8th the fall was considerable at three
stations, and on 26th at two. On 23rd there was a gale with
heavy rain and hail in many places in the county.
October. — Rainfall very heavy, but on little more than the usual
number of days. The first half of the month was much wetter
than the second half, but the excess was chiefiy due to the fall
on one day (the 9th). On 5th the fall was considerable at three
stations; on 6th at one; and on 7th verg considerable at one, and
considerable at six. On 9th the fall was excessive at Oaklands,
Watford (2*72 ins.), Progmore, Watford (2 51 ins.), Nash Mills,
Hemel Hempstead (2-1 6ins. ), and The Grange, St. Albans (202ins.);
iferg heavy at Apsley Mills, Hemel Hempstead (1*92 in.); heavy
at Gorhambury, . St. Albans (1*74 in.), Rothamsted, Harpenden
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
42 J. HOPKnrsoN— SEPOBi as thx
(1-63 in.), Rosebank, Berkhamsted (1*62 in.), Weston Park,
Stevenage (1-55 in.), Great Gaddesden Vicarage (1*50 in.), and
Brocket Hall, Welwyn (1-60 in.); veri/ great at Fairfield, Berk-
hamsted (1*48 in.). High Down, Hitchm (1*36 in.), Kensworth
(l'32in.), Bennington House (I'^Qin.), and Cowroast (1-25 in.);
great at New Bamet (1-21 in.). The Firs, Hitchin (1-19 in.), Ban-
croft, Hitchin (1*19 in.), The Rectory, Wei wyn (1-15 in.), Fanhams
Hall, Ware (1*13 in.), Throcking Rectory (112in.), Broxboume,
(Ml in.), Batch worth Rectory (MO in.), Therfield Rectory
(1-07 in.), Hamels Park (1-06 in.), Southgate (105 in.), and
Odsey (1*02 in.); and very considerable at six stations. On 17th
there was a considerable fall at two stations, and on 21st at one.
A very violent thunderstorm occurred on the 7th. The wind rose
to a gale, many trees were blown down, and other damage was
done. The gale was most destructive in the neighbourhood of
Bushey. An account of its effects there is appended.
November. — Rainfall rather heavy but not exceeding the aver-
age, November being usually a wet month, and although rain was
recorded on half the days in the month, the usual number was not
quite reached. On 14th the fall was very considerable at seven
stations and considerable at fifteen; on 18th considerable at seven;
and on 25th very considerable at two and considerable at thirty.
The fall on the 18th was due to a snowstorm which commenced
on that — Saturday — anight and continued into Sunday morning.
The wind being very high, the snow drifted, and blocked roads
and railway lines all over the county, from Hitchin and Royston
in the north to Rickmans worth in the south-west and Bishop's
Stortford in the east. To clear the line between Hitchin and
Royston a snow-plough had to be employed, and the line
between Bishop's Stortford and Takeley (in Essex) was so com-
pletely blocked that trains could not be worked over it on the
Monday morning. The roads were in places blocked with snow
several feet in depth. At Throcking no service could be held on
the Sunday owing to the approach to the church being snowed up.
At Rickmanswortii the gale was so violent that windows were
blown in, fences were blown down, chimney-pots fell in all direc-
tions, and trees were uprooted.
December. — Rainfall rather above the average, but less than in
November, and on the usual number of days. On 12th there was
a considerable fall at four stations, and on 20th at three. The fall
on the 1 2th was accompanied with a furious gale which blew down
many trees and did other damage, but not so great as that done by
the gale of the 18th of November. The fall of a large fir tree
blocked the railway-line between Cole Green and Hertingfordbury,
and the London Road near Hertford was blocked by a tree falling
right across it, while some damage was done to houses in Hertford
and other places. Rickmansworth again suffered severely,
chimney-pots and tiles being blown off the houses, fences being
blown down and conservatories damaged, some trees being uprooted,
and others having large branches broken off them.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SAIKFALL m HZSTTOBOSHIBE DT 1893. 43
I%s Storm of the 7 th of Oetcher at Buih$y, — Between 6 and
7 p.m. on Saturday the 7th of October, a tenific thunderstorm,
accompanied by a violent gale, or whirlwind as it would appear
to have been, swept across the centre of the parish of EuBhey.
It seems to have commenced near Pinner, and it exhausted
its energies a little to the east of St. Albans, its direction being
almost in a straight line from S.S.W. to N.KE. The night
was intensely dark, the lightning most vivid, like balls of fire, and
the peals of thunder were very loud. Bain fell in torrents, and
water rushed through the village of Bushey in streams in its
course towards the Colne.
The following account is slightly condensed from a report which
appeared in the * Watford Observer' of the 14th of October.
The storm came from the direction of Pinner, swept across
Hartsboume Manor Park and over Merry Hill Lane, crossed the
top of Clay Hill by the spring-hole inscribed ** Pro bono publico,"
and, contmuing straight across Mr. Fowler's meadows, leaving
Cold Harbour Farm on the left and Hart's Farm on the right,
passed on to Tyler's Farm and straight towards Letchmore Heath,
between Delrow on the left and Hillfield on the right. In Harts-
boume Park much damage was done to the trees and fences, one
large tree in the park being torn right up and carried a consider-
able distance ; and at Merry Hill much damage was done to fences,
chimney-stacks, windows, roofing, etc. The terrific force of the
gale here was evident from a quantity of galvanized iron roof-
sheeting being stripped of^ sheds at Merry Hill Lane and some of it
carried a long way and deposited in Mr. Fowler's meadow. On
Clay Hill the dwelling-house of Mr. W. Ashby, jun., was partly
unroofed, windows were blown in, and tiles and glass fell in all
directions. The large gates to the hay-yard of Mr. W. Ashby, sen.,
were burst open and split, the roof of his stables was completely
stripped, and the tiles, bricks, and even large pieces of timber from
the stables were hurled into the adjoining meadows. Portions of
the fence and porch, and some of the slates of the next house,
Lismore Cottage, were blown away, some of the woodwork being
carried half-a-mile. Several other houses near were also damaged.
A holly tree was suddenly snapped off from the bottom of the
trunk and hurled against a man and a boy, carrying them several
yards down the road against a bank on the south side. They were
much hurt. A heavy hay-cart was swept from the middle of Mr.
Ashby 's yard against the wall. On Mr. Fowler's farm large trees
were uprooted, and the tops of others weighing nearly a ton were
twisted off and carried away. On Tyler's Farm several large trees
were blown down, one, with its immense roots, being lifted com-
pletely out of the ground ; buildings also (houses, cow- sheds, etc.)
were damaged. Similar damage was done to trees, buildings, etc.,
at Letchmore Heath.
Since the above was in type I have received from Mr. K. J.
Tarrant, of Craven Cottage, Bushey Heath, the following further
account, also slightly abbreviated.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
44 J. HOPXIKSOir — THS BAHTFALL IK 1893.
" The thunderstonn was a very remarkable one, being of a true
cyclonic character, a tornado in fact. During the whole afternoon
electrical tension had been extreme, the instruments here, especiaUy
the electrometer, being much disturbed. Distant thunder was
heard about 3.30 p.m., and a sharp fall of the barometer set in.
At about 6.5 the storm broke out to the S.W. It appeared to
have originated to the south of the village of Pinner, but did
not then develop the energy it afterwards displayed, the first
case of damage being the partial unroofing of a bam near Pinner
Church. It then passed at the back of Woodridings, where
several large trees were torn up and garden-fences and roofs
broken, and crossed the L. and N.W. main line at Pinner Station,
lifting up the seats on the platform and carrying the corrugated-
iron roof of a shed nearly a mile, depositing it in a field, where
also were found the tops of two fir trees which must have been
blown a mile and a half. After crossing the Watford road near
Burnt Oak Farm, it passed up the valley below Grseme's Dyke
to Hartsboume. (Its further track is given above.)
**The width of the whirlwind was only about 50 yards, and
outside this track nothing was touched, but within its infiuence
the effects were remarkable. It appeared to have exerted the
greatest force in the hollows, nearly all the trees blown down
being in the lowest positions; in many cases where the trunks
were too firmly rooted they were wrung in half about eight feet
from the ground, the fibres of the wood being twisted like the
strands of a rope. A line of trees standing parallel to the course
of the storm had all the branches on one side broken, on the other
untouched, while some of the trees uprooted were lying with their
tops to the direction from which the wind had come.
** As seen from here the cyclone appeared as a very low cloud,
absolutely black, and apparently reaching the ground. It appeared
to completely envelop the trees, and travelled with great velocity,
while the enormous speed with which it rotated on its axis is
shown by the damage done. The noise when distant was like that
produced by a large flock of starlings in flight ; as it approached,
however, tiie roar resembled that of a train, but at this point,
some 800 yards distant from the track of the storm, the air was
perfectly still. The electrical phenomena accompanying it were
very intense, but I have not been able to trace any actual damage
by lightning, although the close proximity of the storm is proved
by the fact that three of the fuses in the electric-lighting engine-
room in the garden were melted, probably by induction, as ^ere
was no sign of the building having been struck. From 6.40 the
barometer commenced to recover itself. I am strongly of opinion
that a so-called cyclone is simply an effect of electrical t^sion,
and that any thunderstorm of sufficient energy is likely to be
accompanied by a * wind-spout ' similar to the above." — JT. J. Tarrant*
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
VII.
CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN IN HERTFORDSHIRE
IN THE TEAR 1893.
By JoHH HoPHKSow, F.L.8., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
S$ad at Watford, nth April, 1894.
Observations contmue to be made at the five stations for which
the six previous annual reports have been drawn up, and therefore
I give for the year 1893 the usual series of tables.
The mean temperature of Hertfordshire in 1893, deduced from
these observations, was 2°* 6 above that of the six previous years,
and l®-2 above the mean of 1882-86. Tlie year was therefore
decidedly warm. The mean daily range was very great, being
2^-7 greater than in 1887-91, and 2°-l greater than in 1882-86.
The extreme range was greater than in any previous year. The
air was much less humid than the average of the six previous
years, the amount of cloud was rather less, and the rainfall was
considerably less, and on a much smaller number of days. The
weather was very warm in spring and summer, excessively dry
in spring and the early part of summer, but cold and rather wet
in autunm.
All the observations are made at 9 a.m., the mftyiTnnTn tempera-
ture and rainfall being entered to the previous day.
R0Y8T0N.
(London Eoad.)
liatitude : 62° 2' 34" N. Longitude : 0° 1' 8" W. Altitude:
301 feet.
Observer
: EaU fFortham, F.R.MetSoc.
Months
Temperature of the Air
i3
e
2
Bain
Means
Extremes
^
1
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range
Min
Max.
1
^
o
•&
ins.
Jan. _
340
295
384
8-9
155
500
67
163
21
Feb
40*5
34-6
464
11-8
240
581
81
69
2-92
19
March _
45-9
350
568
21-8
242
680
s-;
4 5
017
4
April —
520
37-8
^1
28-5
26-2
829
67
31
013
2
567
44.6
68-8
24-2
321
79-3
72
57
IIS
7
June
617
489
74-6
257
368
88*o
71
SI
066
II
July
637
530
74*5
21*5
43*9
903
78
6-3
348
17
AugnBt_
65-5
54-9
761
21*2
42*0
Ts
73
53
2*49
II
Sept. ^.
55*3
47-1
634
I5S
371
It
5 "5
I'd
9
Oct. ... .
512
43-3
59-1
270
67-1
5-6
3-II
17
Nor
404
340
46-8
12-8
247
60 'O
87
7-2
215
II
Dec
393
33-4
45*2
II-8
202
551
89
6-3
1*62
17
Year _
505
41*3
597
i8-4
15-5
93-0
79
57
2052
146
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46
J, HOPKINSOir^-CLIKATOLOOICAL OBSEBVATIOirS
BERKHAMSTED.
(Eosebank.)
Latitude: 61^ 45' 40" N. Longitude : 0° 33' 30" W. Altitude :
400 feet.
Observer: Edward Maioley, F.R.MeL8oe.
Months
Temperature of the Air
1
S
1
Bain
Means
Extremes
1
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
Jan
Feb
March ....
^.^-:
June
July
August....
Sept..-.
Oct
Not.
Dec
o
34-6
40-3
450
509
V^
62-3
63-9
56-6
503
404
391
30-,
34-8
337
37-3
%\
42-5
34-4
32-8
39-1
457
72-0
717
74-3
66.4
58-0
46-5
45 4
90
io*9
227
27 '2
22-6
23-6
i8-8
20-8
19-6
15-5
12-1
12-6
12-4
253
21-9
249
357
340
39-8
517
668
8o-6
f7-5
85-5
91*0
79-5
66-3
597
551
Vo
93
92
11
67
6s
7'
70
8s
90
93
8-6
8-3
4*4
41
5 9
tl
6-6
5*9
71
ins.
369
0*46
020
0-86
098
214
2*33
I'lO
4-21
317
275
21
21
5
3
1
20
12
>3
16
16
19
Year ...
50-0
41 -o
590
180
12-4
91-0
78
6-5
23-94
163
ST. ALBANS.
(The Grange.)
Latitude : 51° 45' 9" N. Longitude : 0** 20' 7" W. Altitude :
380 feet.
Observer: John Ei^kinson, F,R,MeLSoe,
Months
Temperature of the Air
1
5
Rain
Means
Extremes
1
Mean
Min.
Max. 1 Range
Min.
Max.
Jan
Feb...
March....
M^f -
June
July ........
August.....
Sept
Oct ..
Not
Dec _
34-4
397
45-6
5^;2
6o-6
62-6
647
563
503
409
39 "O
30'i
34-2
35'9
39*4
49*6
54-0
47-6
43*2
34-8
33*2
38-8
45-2
55-3
65
66-5
717
71-2
74-2
65-0
57 -5
47 -o
44-8
8-7
II'O
19-4
20*8
22*1
172
191
174
14-3
12-2
II-6
147
22*9
28-8
37-4
37*9
471
429
38-9
30-0
26-1
201
50-2
|6-3
65-5
777
846
91-0
786
647
59*2
54-8
7o
90
69
67
§
91
91
M
47
3-6
SO
B
5*5
43
7 9
6-6
ins.
2*01
3-36
051
014
1-65
072
3-o6
2'IO
I -08
5-07
289
241
24
2
8
8
22
13
II
17
19
17
Year.....
50-2
41-9
585
i6-6
147
91-0
79
5-9
25-00
170
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TAXEK IS HEBTFOBBSBIBB IK 1893.
47
BENNINGTON.
(Bennington Lodge.)
Latitude : 51° 53' 45" N. Longitude : 0° 5' 20" W. Altitude :
407 feet.
Observer: i?w. J. 2>. Por^^, ZL.D,, F.R.MeLSoc.
Months
Temperature of the Air
^
7
Bain
Means
Eztremee
?
s-
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
m
1
^
G
o
7o!
ins.
Jan.
34*4
301
3«-6
108
17*5
50-9
93 81
1-69
21
Feb
397
i
45-1
22-3
57-1
91 7*8
291
21
March _
4.S-«
55*9
201
253
654
78-6
75
5:1
0-39
7
April
510
632
245
317
66
o-o8
2
May
55«
451
66-6
21-5
39-8
76-8
87-1
67
6-2
I -20
9
June
6o-3
491
71-4
22*3
64
6-8
0-58
8
July
622
531
71-4
18-3
457
85-9
67
6-8
274
18
Aug:urt.^
641
54"4
737
193
441
909
70
6-5
273
'3
Sept
56-2
47-8
647
16-9
381
?7*2
?5
6-4
0-88
10
Oct.
50-3
43 4
571
137
299
64-8
83
i:?
3-56
^7
Not.
40-2
34-6
45*9
11*3
273
58-5
87
2*53
16
Dec
3»-9
329
449
120
21-4
55*3
90
71
225
17
Year_
499
41-6
582
166
17*5
90-9
77
6-5
21*54
159
NEW BARNET.
(Gas Works.)
Latitude : 51^ 39' 5" N. Longitude : 0^ lO' 15" W. Altitude :
212 feet.
Observer : T. H. Martin, C,E.
Temperature
) of the Air 1
2 1 Rain |
.J^
i
Months
Means
Extremes
-s 1 «
1
1
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
W
1 <i
I
ins.
Jan
34-5
288
40-2
11-4
12 'O
530
7*5 I 61
14
Feb. ....
401
33-4
46-8
13*4
170
57'^
90
7*5 320
19
March...-
44-0
310
569
25-9
170
680
76
4*3 o'38
4
April ..„
May
49*3
33*9
64-6
307
22 '0
788
Z?
27
004
2
557
421
693
27 -2
30'o
79-0
86
5-3
057
7
June
6o*o
457
74-3
738
28-6
290
900
81
5*3
0*64
6
July .
62-5
511
227
390
87-8
69
5-6
2-44
15
August.....
§:?
513
76-5
252
35 -o
94-5
62
4-5
2-o8
II
Sept.
44-6
677
i8-3
33-8
8o-5
77
57
093
9
Oct
508
41*6
59*9
280
68'o
82
4-6
3-69
IS
Not
40-8
.1V8
47*8
140
20-5
61 -8
84
\i
232
II
Dec.
381
309
45-3
14-4
120
57-1
87
252
12
Year_
, 49'6
390
6o'2
21*2
12 'O
94-5
79
5-5
20'42
125
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
48
J, HOPKIHSON ^^JLOCITOLOOICAL OBSEBTATIOITS.
HERTFORDSHIRE.
Means of Clitnatological Obseryations (with extremes of tempera-
ture) in 1893, at Royston, Berkhamsted, St. Albans, Bennington,
and New Bamet.
Months
Temperature of the Air
i^
7
Rain
Means
Extremes
?
1
Mean
Mm.
Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
m
1
B
o
7o
ins.
Jan — ^
34-4
297
39-0
93
I2*0
53;o
77
I 80
20
Feb
40-1
34*3
459
11-6
17*0
1^
7-6
3*21
21
March .„..
45 3
34-3
56-3
22*0
170
68 -o
4-5
038
5
April ....
51 1
37-4
647
27-3
22 'O
82-9
67
3-5
012
2
May. ....
561
44*5
677
74-8
232
30-0
80-6
72
5-6
108
8
Jnne
60-5
48-|
24-5
29 X>
900
70
60
072
8
July ^
626
72-S
197
39-0
903
71
H
277
18
Angnst.....
64-4
m
749
2I-I
35 -o
945
68
2-35
12
Sept
•>6i
6§-4
i8-6
33'8
8o-s
75
5-8
I 00
II
Oct
50-6
42-8
15-5
26*4
68-0
84
1*^
8-0
3*93
16
Not.....
405
34*3
12-5
205
61 -8
88
261
15
Dec
389
32-6
45-1
12-5
120
57-1
90
6-5
231
16
Year...
50*0
41-0
59-1
181
I2-0
94-5
78
6-0
22-28
152
Results op Climatolooical OBSERYAnoirs, 1887-92.
Stations.
Temperature of the Air
1
Rain
Means i Extremes
a
a
-<
^
Q
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range | Min.
Max.
Royston
Berkhamsted „..
St. Albans
Bennington .....
New Bamet ^
481
47 -o
474
47-1
47-2
40-1
39-5
404
40 'O
38-2
56-0
54*5
54-4
15-9
150
140
180
4*3
ii-i
ir8
14*4
7*5
89-4
850
860
82
84
6-3
U
7-4
6-3
ins.
25-66
26-30
2478
2379
160
182
185
192
144
County
47*4
397
55-1
15-4
4*3
89-4
83 1 6-8
2455
173
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
VIII.
NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE DURING
THE YEAR 1893.
By HsvBY Lewis.
Read at Watford, \1th ApHly 1894.
When I last had the honour of presenting my annual report on
the birds observed in Hertfordshire, I was enabled to increase our
register by the addition of three species. On the present occasion
I have two species to add, raising the number recorded for
the county to 207. Several rare birds already on our register
have also been observed during the year. I will at once proceed to
refer to the two additional species.
1. The Black Redstabt {Rutieilla titys). — This welcome ad-
dition to my report I recently received in a letter from Mr. A.
Sainsbury Verey, of Heronsgate, Herts, enclosing a cutting from
the '"Watford Observer' of 1st April, 1893, which runs thus: —
** Sir, — Watching for the wheatears in my field at an early hour
this morning, the note of a redstart attracted my attention, and
looking about I was immediately struck with the dark back of the
bird as it sat perched on a wire fence not very far away. It per-
mitted a near approach, and then, with obliging courtesy facing
round, the very dark colour of the throat and body at once con-
firmed my first impression, it being undoubtedly a specimen of the
black redstart {RutieiUa tityi). I copy a brief account of the dis-
tribution of the bird from the * List of British Birds,' compiled by
the British Ornithologists' Union (p. 9) : * A winter visitant to
the south-west of Great Britain; occasional elsewhere, and in
Ireland; has been known to breed in Notts. Breeds all over
Central and Southern Europe. Winters in North Africa.' — Yours,
etc., A. Sainsbury Verey, Heronsgate, Herts."
In his letter to me Mr. Verey states : ** The bird was observed
on the 28th of March. It stayed with me two days, and was very
tame, enabling me to determine clearly that it was really the black
redstart, as I had many opportunities of seeing the grey throat and
the dark sooty appearance of the whole of the front of the body."
2. The Canada Goose (B&micla canadensiB). — When on a recent
visit to Royston, Mr. W. Norman, naturalist, of that town, showed
me a well-mounted and fine specimen of this rare bird, which
was shot on the 6th of June, 1893, from a flock of about ten
observed in a field on the estate of Mr. W. B. Green, Cockenack,
near Barkway, early in the morning. The bird was found to
weigh twelve pounds, and measured across the wings 5ft. Gins.',
and from tip of tail to bill, 3ft. 3in8.
This bird is the common wild goose of the United States. I
quote the following from Gray's * Birds of the West of Scotland '
(p. 854). ** In writing of the vernal fiight of this species, Wilson,
the American ornithologist, says ; — * It is highly probable that
they extend their migration under the very pole itself, amid the
VOL. VXn. — ^PAET n.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
50 H. LEWIS— KOTES OK BIBD8
nlent desolation of unknown countries, shut out . . . from the
prying eye of man by everlasting and insuperable barriers of ice.
That such places abound with their suitable food we cannot
for a moment doubt, while the absence of their great destroyer,
man, and the splendours of a perpetual day, may render such
regions the most suitable for their purpose.' This restlessness of
the species," Gray then remarks, ** becomes apparent in April, and
continues until the middle of May, when the great body has passed
northwards for the purposes of incubation. There can be no doubt
that on their return southwards many birds are driven out of their
reckoning, and find their way to the shores of Great Britain.''
According to the late Sir John Richardson this species occasionally
breeds in trees on the banks of the Saskatchawan, taking posses-
sion of and depositing its eggs in the deserted nests of ravens and
eagles. A raven's nest is no doubt a bulky enough structure, but
after having been sat upon by a fat goose during the period of
incubation it must have greatly perplexed the original proprietor
on visiting it the following spring when trying to identify its own
property. Dr. Coues, in his * Birds of the North West ' (p. 554)
reports that the Canada goose nests ''in trees, the old birds carrying
their young when hatched down to the water in their bills." This
habit of carrying their young is possessed by a number of other
birds. The woodcock is a weU-known instance. In case of danger
the bird will convey her young in her claws te a place of safety.
Mr. John Watson, in * Sylvan Folk ' (p. 92), says : ** Not only do
swans, coots, grebes, and moor-hens carry their young on their
backs whilst swimming, but the same birds transport their young
whilst flying." He also stetes that the mallard or wild duck has
been known te convey its young from an elevation of at least thirty
feet from the ground; and that "another duck, the golden- eye,
which builds in trees, has been seen te transport its young te the
water." ** Young guillemots," he says, "are carried by their
parents to the water from the beetling sea-cliffs where they breed,
though in what manner is not yet definitely known. The same set
of facts apply to the herring-gull and other sea-birds which build
on high rocky headlands."
Mr. Arthur Lewis has given me an amusing instance of the
nesting of a mallard or wild duck, in his possession, on his
bee-house. The bird enticed her young to the edge of the roof,
gave one a push with her beak, and over-toppled the youngster
on to the grass; she flying down, the rest were precipitated
pell-mell after her.
. I will now refer to the occurrence during the past year of a few
rare birds which are already on our register.
The Waxwwq (Ampelis gamdus). — In January (1893) Mr.
Seymour received for preservation a specimen of this beautiful bird
which had been picked up dead on the side of the River Lea,
near Hertford ; and Mr. Norman Thrale, of Enfield Lock,
wrote to me to the following effect: '* Two waxwings were shot
by Mr. E. Jackson, of Potter's Bar, at Northaw, Herts, on the 27th
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSRRTED IK HXBTS IK 1893. 51
of February. There were five of them feeding off the hips." This
bird appears at uncertain intervals during the winter months, and
although it has be^i recorded on several previous occasions, its
erratic wanderings are always well wortiiy of notice in our
* Transactions.'
The Whooprr or Whistlikg Swak (Cy^nus musicua). — Last
Christmas twelvemonth, Mr. Seymour, m company with many
other persons, noticed about thirty of these magnificent birds
flying over Hertford. He heard the noise made by their wings
in cleaving the air. They stopped at Woodhall a short time, but
as soon as one was shot by Mr. I^oble, jun., of Woodhall, Watton,
they were off. Like the wild geese, these birds fly in the fashion
of a wedge. (1 may add that the singular windpipe of this bird
was sent to King's College, London, and that considerable credit
is due to Mr. Seymour in the mounting of this specimen.)
Mr. W. Warde Fowler, in his delightful book * A Year with the
Birds,' remarks : " Swans are frequently mentioned by Virgil,
as by other Latin and Greek poets. This splendid bird must have
been much commoner then throughout Europe than it is now,
and accordingly attracted much attention. It doubtless abounded
in the swampy localities of the north of Italy, and at the mouths
of the great rivers of Thrace and Asia Minor, as well as in the
north of Europe, where it came to be woven into many a Teutonic
fable. Homer has frequent and beautiful allusions to it ; and
the town of Clazomenee, at the mouth of the river Hermus, has
a swan stamped upon its coins. This swan of the old poets is
without any doubt the whooper, whose voice and presence are
still well known in Italy and Greece."
The Smew {Mer^us Melius), — We are indebted to Mr. George
Eooper, of Watfoid, for the following particulars respecting one
of ttiese rare ducks (in a letter dated 7th October, 1893) : ** A
young smew was caught the other day in a water-cress bed.
Jly groom bought it. . . . The bird seems tame enough, and
I think must have escaped from captivity. It feeds well on
refuse fish." The smew has but rarely been reported in our
'Transactions,' and no doubt Mr. Hooper is correct in regarding
this young bird as being an escaped prisoner, the species being
a winter visitor to our shores.
The Littlb Auk {Mergulua alle), — One of these rare birds,
Mr. W. Norman informs me, was picked up on the 22nd of
November on the borders of HertfordBhire, between Koyston and
Litlington, having evidently been knocked down by coming in
contact with the telegraph wires, its breast-bone being broken.
The little auk is only a winter visitor to the British Isles, and
when observed inland it is generally supposed to have been blown
from the sea in stormy weather. This bird has only on two
previous occasions been reported in our * Transactions,' but the
late Mr. Thrale, of No Man's Land, had in his collection (which
I have seen) one which was obtained on the mill-head at Wheat-
hampstead. This is the specimen mentioned by Yarrell in his
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
52 H. LEWIS — ^N0TE8 ON BIBDS
* History of British Birds.'* He also mentions another as having
been picked Up alive between Baldock and Royston.f
The Puffin {Fratercrda arctica). — About the end of last year
Mr. Seymour received a specimen of this sing:ularly comical-looking
bird, shot by the keeper on Roxford Farm, Bayfordbury.
This quaint bird has been recorded in our * Transactions ' on
several occasions. On Lundy Island it is abundant, with other
species of sea-birds, as I once had an opportunity of observing.
Mr. Seebohm states: "There can be little doubt that the puffin
is more or less a resident in the British seas, but it is less
frequently observed in winter, when it is scattered over a large
area, seldom approaching the land." He further informs us:
"Notwithstanding its somewhat small and narrow wings, which
seem almost incapable of bearing such a plump little body through
the air, it is a bird of remarkably rapid and powerful flight. "J
Possibly this may account in some way for its comparatively
frequent occurrence in our county.
Miscellaneous Notes.
FiELDFAEB {Turdus pilaris). — On the 7th of January, 1893, Mr.
Arthur Lewis observed continued flights of fieldfares coming from
the north flying over his house, Sparrows wick, St. Albans.
Keobbeast {Hrythacus ruhectUa). — Mr. J. Mills kindly presented
me with a robin's nest (containing five white eggs), built last spring
in an old tin pint mug. It was taken from the fork of a laurel,
about five feet from the ground, close to Lord Grimthorpe's house,
Batch wood, St. Albans. If the eggs are carefully examined, a very
few faint red markings will be seen. The ground-colour of a red-
breast's egg is shiny white, it is usually speckled, and streaked or
blotched with light red.
Wood- Ween {Phyllosoopus sihilatrix). — We were enabled last
spring to identify the wood-wren's song in Verulam Woods, St.
Albans, and again heard the same bird's song when on a pilgrimage
to Selboume early last June.
Teee-Cbeepee {Certhia familiarii). — Mr. Hopkinson observed a
tree-creeper last spring at Bricket Wood. I also noticed a- pair,
and heard the bird's loud and pleasing song. From its small size
and sober colouring, and habit of ascending the trunk of a tree in a
spiral fashion, suddenly stopping and then making a fresh start, it
is often overlooked.
Hawfinch {Coccothraustes vulgaris), and Teee-Spaerow (Passer
montanus). — Mr. Spary has received specimens of these birds taken
in Hertfordshire during the year.
Chaffinch {Fringilla cceUhs). — On the 17th of May Mr. Arthur
Dickinson informed me that he had noticed a chaffinch repeatedly
carrying away barley-meal to feed its young ones.
Snow-Bunting {Plectrophanes nivalis), — Mr. W. Norman reports
having received two or three snow-buntings, one knocked down
» Ist Ed., vol. i, p. 860. t lb.
X * British Birds,' vol. iii, p. 365.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSEBYED m HEBTS IK 1893. 53
in flying against the telegraph wires on Eoyston Heath on the
6th of December ; one shot at Triplow, Cambridgeshire, as early
as the 15th of September; and another shot in January last at
Sandon, Herts, by Mr. Lees.
Jackdaw ( Conms monedula), — A. keeper informed Mr. G. Gooch,
of St. Albans, that last spring he lost a number of young pheasants,
and it was some time before he became aware who the thief was.
At last a jackdaw was caught in the act of killing one. I have
but little doubt the species had to suffer on account of his good
taste. Canon McLean informs me that he observed on several
occasions at Caistor in Lincolnshire a jackdaw with legs feathered
down to the toes.
Rook {Carvus frugilegus), — Last spring both I and my son
noticed the rooks breaking the small branches of the trees in
the Abbey Orchard, to mend or construct their nests with.
Nightjar {Caprimulgw europaus). — At the kind invitation of
Mr. Charles Dickinson, I visited the wood where this bird last
year safely reared its young, and found close to the same spot
two young ones squatting on the ground. When I saw them they
were always head and t^ together, the head of one bird situated
against the tail of the other. I am not aware if this is their usual
position or was merely accidental.
WooDPECKEBS and Kingfisher. — Last March Mr. Arthur
Dickinson observed a pair of the lesser-spotted woodpeckers in
his wood near St. Albans. Mr. Seymour has received, amongst
a number of other specimens, both the greater and lesser-spotted
woodpeckers {Bendrocopm major and minor) , as weU as the green
woodpecker ( Gecinus vtridis), and I am very sorry to add a large
number of kingfishers {Alcedo ispida), Mr. Seymour also informs
me that he has seen the kingfisher use its feet to remove the earth
from its nest-hole. I mention this to corroborate a former state-
ment to the same effect.
LiTTi^ Owl {Athene noetua), — ^Mr. W. Norman mentions : ** On
Monday, the 12th of March, I was delighted to have brought in
a lovely specimen of that rare bird the little owl {Athene noetua),
killed at Wimpole, Cambridgeshire, and sent to me by the Rev. E.
L. Fellows." I mention this as it is somewhat singular that the
only specimen I can find mentioned in the late Mr. J. E. Littleboy*s
register is reported by Mr. W. Norman as having been obtained
in May, 1877, at Ash well, near Royston. I regret that we cannot
place this recent record on our register, the occurrence being
outside the limits of our county.
Pheasant and Pabtbidge. — Mr. Seymour has shown me several
varieties of the pheasant {Phaeianus eokhicm) ; and last October
Mr. Arthur Spary showed me a singularly marked (pied would
perhaps be the right word to use) partridge {Perdix cinerea), killed
by Mr. Lattimore on his farm near Wheathampstead. When
walking one summer's evening in Gorhambury Park, a partridge
suddenly arose at my feet. I was surprised to see her tumble and
flutter along as if wounded just in front of me, but was very soon
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54
H. LEWIS — ^NOTES OIT BIBBS
aware of her deception, as I saw her young ones dodging hither
and thither to hide out of my Way.
Snipes, etc. — During the past year Mr. Spary has received hoth
the common snipe {Gdllinago calestis) and jack snipe {OaUinago
gallinula\ taken in our county; and amongst other specimens
a dunlin {Tringa alpina) shot at Eedboum, a sanderling {CaUdris
arenaria) shot in December near St. Albans, and a green sandpiper
{Totanua ochroputi).
Common TiatN {SUma fluv%aUli%), — A common tern was brought
to Mr. Norman on the 19th of October; it was taken alive, quite
exhausted, within a stone's throw of Hertfordshire.
Cbested Gbebe ( Podieept eristatus). — Mr. W. Norman also writes
to say : ^* A beautiful specimen of the crested grebe was brought
to me for preservation, and it proved to be a young male bird."
Unfortunately it was killed at Orwell, Cambridgeshire, and there-
fore its occurrence cannot appear on our register; but the bird
breeds abundantly at Tring Park, the residence of the Hon. Walter
Eothschild.
Mimicking of Song. — I have before alluded to the mimicking
by certain birds of the song of others. I have frequently heard
the great tit in the spring utter the ** wink-wink " of the handsome
chaffinch, and I once heard the chifP-chaff commence the willow-
wren's song, but it instantly ceased as if aware of its mistake
and commenced its chifP-chaff as merrily as ever.
Albinism and Albino Spobts. — Miss Ada Selby last August
informed me that Mr. Roffe, of Qarston Farm, wrote to her to
say that he had seen a white sparrow on his premises. Mr. Spary
has received two blackbirds witii white heads. Mr. Michael Ryder,
of Watford, shot in his garden a black and white rook ; and two
albino sparrows were seen near White Hall Farm, Bishop's
Stortford ; one was captured and lived but a short time, the other
was shot by Mr. Cutler soon afterwards. Mr. W. Norman received
an albino skylark for preservation; also a hen chaffinch with a
mixture of white and grey, and sparrow-colour markings.
I now give the usual list of dates on which the arrival and
departure of our summer and winter visitants have been reported,
with the names of the observers. Undoubtedly the lovely spring
favoured the exceptionally early arrival of many of our summer
migrants in this country.
Spboibs.
Sono-Thru8h
{Turdu*
Redstart ^^„»^^.
{Ruticilla phwnieurut)
NiOHTIN OALB^
(Lauliat luteinia)
StTMMXB MlGBANTS.
LOCALITT. DatB.
Watford
Berkhamsted ..
St. Albans
St. Albans
St. Albans ^
Bricket Wood
Sandridge
Hitohin .............
Obsbrver.
Jan. 24..... Mn. Bishop.
„ 29_ Mrs. E. Mawley.
„ 29..... H. L.
April 6..... Arthur Lewis.
„ 9^ Arthur Sparj.
„ 12_ H. Sexton.
„ 14..... Miss Chorler.
,, 14._ J. E. litUe.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSBRTED DT HBBIS DT 1893.
55
Spbcibs.
KlOHTIKOALB ^
{Dauliat luaeima)
"WniTlTHaOAT
LOCALITT.
, Watford .^^...^
St. Albans
Odsey -—. —
Newoerries, Radlett
Harpenden .^..-..^
Broxbourne >-^
Berkbamsted ^„
St. Albans
St. Albans .....
St. Albans
Yenilam Woods, St.
Albans ~.„-......«..«.
St. Albans
{Siflvia einerea)
Blackcap
(Syhia atrieapiUdf
Chiff-Chafp -«..
{PhyUo8eopu» firfut)
Willow- Warblbe
(PhyUoteopu9 troohilui)
Sxdob-Wakblbb
{Aeroetphalut phraymitul)
Okasshoppbb-Wa&blbb Harpenden Common
(LoetuteUa »<9vt«)
Tbllow Wagtail «.«...«.
(MotaeiUa Maii)
Tbbb-Pipit
{AtUhut trUfuUit)
Spottbd Fltoatchbb
(Muteieapti gritoia)
Datb.
April 16..
„ 16..
M 16.
18.
18..
„ 18«
„ 19^
„ 16...
„ 16-
Mar. 16..
„ 81..
April 20.
Obsbrybb.
Mrs. Bishop.
H. L.
H. G. Fordham.
H. J. Lubbock.
J. J. Willis.
Lady F. Bushby.
Mis. £. Mawley.
H.L.
H. L.
H.L.
H. L.
H.L.
27--. H. L.
Near Batch Wood,
St. Albans^ -.-
, Oaklands, St. Albans
Swallow «...
{Hirundo rmtiea)
(Last seen)
Housb-BIabtin ^..„^^
(Cheltdon wHcd)
(Last seen) -.
SwiPT ^^ ^^.^^^
(Cypteltu apus)
NlOHTJAB ..«..»....««... «.
{CaprimulyuB europaus)
WErNBCB -«.-«....
{lynx torquilla)
Cuckoo ^ --..«««—
Newberries. Badlett
Berkbamsted .»..--.--.
Odsey ^
St. Albans
. Newberries,. Radlett
Beaumont's Farm,
St. Albans
Hitchin -«..««
Watford
St. Albans
Odsey
Monden Park, St.
Albans «....- ...-
Watford
Berkbamsted -
Harpenden .--.
St. Albans
Odsey -.--.—..--.
Heruord —....—...»
Hemel Hempstead..-.
Redboum
St. Albans
St. Albans
St. Albans
{Cueulut eanorut)
, Harpenden -.-..-..-.....
Bricket Wood .—
Venilam Woods, St.
Albans ................
Harpenden ....... -
Childwick, St. Albans
Watford
Oaklands, St. Albans
Watford
• And H. L.
19..
14..
May 7..
„ lU
„ 16^
„ 28..
April 8...
» 8~
„ 8-
•• IC
„ IC
„ 10--.
» 12-
„ 15-
» 1«-
M 18-.
Oct. IC
,. 12-,
„ 19.
April 15.
., 18-,
Oct. 10.
May 6...
.. 8.
, Arthur Dickinson.
, H.L.
H. J. Lubbock.
, Mrs. £. Mawley.
, H. G. Fordham.
Arthur Dickinson.
H. J. Lubbock.
John Boyes, Jun.
J. £. LitUe.
Daniel Hill.
A rthurDickinson*
H. G. Fordbam.
.Hon.A.H.Hibbert.
. Mrs. Bishop.
. Mrs. £. Mawley.
. J. J. Willis.
. ArthurDickinson*
. H. G. Fordham.
. W. Graveson.
. T. Hope.
. A. £. Gibbs.
. H. Allenbv.
. ArthurDicldnson*
. H.L.
J. Dickinson.
April 3-. A. £. Gibbs.
7«
9.
14.
14.
17.
John Lewis.
J. J. Willis.
R.H.Weatherley.
Mrs. Bishop.
H.L.
John WealL
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
56
H. LEWIS — BIBD8 OBSEBYED IN 1893.
Spboibs.
Cuckoo .
{CueuUu eanorus)
TURTLE-DOVB ; ^^
( Turtur communis)
Corncrake or Landrail.
{Crex pratentii)
Sandpiper
Locality.
Broxboume
Hitchin
Date.
April 18..
Berkhamsted
Smallfoid, St. Albans
St. Albans
St. Albans
May
19...
22...
23^
26..
2..
Obsbrter.
Lady F. Busbby.
J. E. Little.
Mrs. £. Mawley.
Arthur Smith.
H. L.
H. L.
{Totanus hypoUuem)
Species.
Redwing ..«..,
( Turdu* iliacui)
Okey Wagtail
(MoiaeiUa melanope)
Redbonm Bnry, St.
Albans .......... April
8-.„ E. W. Aniold.
WiiniEB Visitants.
Locality.
St. Albans
St. Albans ................
Date.
Sept. 24..
Obsertbb.
Arthur DickiiisoD.
Oct. 1..... H. L.
Mr. Warde Fowler, in his book * A Tear with the Birds,' so
aptly expresses my views and feelings with regard to our feathered
songsters that I cannot do better than quote his words. He says
(page 44) : ** Nothing but a personal acquaintance — a friendship as
I must call it in my own case— with these little birds, as they live
their every-day life among us, will suffice to fix the individuality
of each species in the mind : not even the best plates iu a book, or
the faded and lifeless figures in a museum. You may shoot and
dissect them, and study them as you would study and label a set of
fossils : but a bird is a living thing, and you will never really know
him till you fully understand how he lives." And I may add that
the more we thus become acquainted with nature so much the
more must our minds expand. Mr. Thomas Edison, the greatest
of modem inventors, has spoken thus : " I tell you that no person
can be brought into close contact with the mysteries of nature,
. . . without being convinced that behind it all there is a supreme
intelligence."
I cannot conclude without thanking those ladies and gentlemen,
especially Mr. T. Hope, who have so kindly assisted me with
extracts, information, and records, without which it would have
been impossible for me to have written this report.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
IX.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT THE GRANGE,
ST. ALBANS, DURING THE YEAR 1893.
By John Hopkinson, F.L.8., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
Bead iU Watford, llth April, 1894.
Longitude of Station, 0^ 20' 7" W. ; Latitude, 51° 45' 9" N.
CHstem of barometer 388 feet, ground-level at thermometer-screen
380 feet, and at rain-gauge 379 feet, above Ordnance Datum.
Thermometers (in Stevenson screen) 4 feet, and top of rain-gauge
1 foot, above the ground. Observations taken at 9 a.m.
The accompanying tables (pp. 58, 59) give the monthly means,'
etc., of the daily observations in 1893, and the following is the
usual summary for the seasons : —
MsAKS FOB THB Seisons fboh Deg. 1892 TO Nov. 1893.
Seasons,
1892-93.
Pressure.
Temperature.
Humi-
dity.
Cloud,
0-10.
Force
of
Wind.
Rainfall.
Mean.
Daily
Range.
Total.
Days.
Winter _
Spring _
Summer.....
Autumn.....
ins.
29932
30137
29-991
29940
363
509
628
48-9
lO'O
219
19-5
14*6
7o
90
85
7-1
5 9
0-13
1-8
1-6
1-6
21
ins.
687
MI
904
61
16
43
47
In the next table the chief results, monthly and annual, are
compared with the means for the ten years 1877-86 at Watford.
DiFFERBNCE m 1893 PROM Msiirs OP 1877-86 at Watford.
Months.
Pressure.
Temperature.
/>i^~j
Force
Rainfall.
Mean.
Daily
Range.
Humi-; "'"7' of
dity. 1 ^-^^- 1 Wind.
Total.
Days.
January „..
February
March _
June ..
July
August ....
September
October....
November
December
in.
+•050
—•259
+•171
- --314
+ 109
+•053
-•051
+•119
—•082
—•005
--•097
--•062
—2*2
-o*3
+3 9
--2'I
— 0-5
+07
+4-6
+9*2
4-27
+4'o
-)-2-8
+0-8
-I-0-2
+1-5
To
+ 1
— 3
— 7
— 2
— 6
— 5
— II
— 5
— I
+ 2
-|- I
4^1
— 1-6
—2-9
-1-4
-09
— 2-2
+1-4
-07
0-13
H-o-2
+05
-0-3
-0-5
-03
— O'l
-j-o-i
-fo'i
-foi
-fo-8
+0-4
ins.
-058
+077
-115
—2-24
—076
--2-I4
+053
-052
-1-53
-|-2'01
-0-I3
— 0*22
^1
— 13
+ 7
— I
— 2
Tear_
+•049
+1-3
.f2-2
— 3
-08 +01
-5-96
—14
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
58
J. HOPKIKSOK — ^HETEOBOLOCrlCAL 0BSERYATI0K8
Oi
00
5
s
g
o
EH
I
o
i
Pi
<
n
Rela.
tive
Humi-
dity.
^8.ac85^R£'5^««.S &&
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TAKBK AT 8T. ALBANS DT 1893.
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
60 J. H0PKINS017 — ^XETEOBOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
The year 1898 was remarkably warm, especially during the
spring. The mean daily range of temperature was large ; the
absolute range also was great, the rather low minimum of 14°*7
occurring in January, and the high maximum of 91^*0 in August.
The temperature was above the average in every one of the six
months of spring and summer (March to August) ; as much as 4^^
above it in the spring, and 2^^ above it in the summer. The only
months with a temperature appreciably below the average were
January and November. The change from summer to autumn
was marked, September being 9° colder than August. The mean
pressure of the atmosphere was considerably above the average of
that of the ten years 1877-86 at Watford. The lowest pressure
recorded at 9 a.m. was 28*753 ins. on 21st February, and the
highest was 30*750 ins. on 30th December, giving a range of
1*997 in.* The rainfall was much below the average of that of the
ten years 1877-86, and considerably below a long-period average.
The number of wet days also was small. March, April, June, and
September were very dry months; October was very wet. The
air was dry and the sky bright. The prevailing direction of the
wind was south-west and west.
In the winter of 1892-93 (Dec. to Feb.) the mean pressure of the
atmosphere was rather low, the mean temperature was rather low,
with an average mean daily range, and the humidity, cloud, and
rainfall were about the average, but rain fell on an unusually large
number of days. There was a month of very cold weather (22nd
Dec. to 13th Jan.), and on the other hand there were fifteen days
in succession in February (8th to 22nd) without a single night on
which the temperature of the air fell below freezing-point.
In the spring (March to May) the. mean pressure of the
atmosphere was very high, the mean temperature was excessively
high, with a very great mean daily range, the air was very dry,
the sky very bright, and the ramfall excessively small, on an
unusually small number of days. This spring wi\l for long be
memorable for its warmth, brightness, and dryness, being probably
the warmest, brightest, and driest since the year 1840, or for
more than half a century. While, however, the days were
abnormally warm, the nights were rather colder than usual. We
had only, at 9 a.m., two-thirds the average amount of cloud. The
rainfall was only about one-third the average for this part of
Hertfordshire for the last half-century, and tiie number of rainy
days was even smaller in proportion than the amount of rain.
In the summer (June to August) the mean pressure of the
atmosphere was rather high, the mean temperature was a little
above the average, with a large mean daily range, the air was
very dry, the sky rather bright, and the rainMl very small,
but on an average number of days. The nights were considerably
colder than usual, the excess of temperature being entirely due,
to the warmth of the days.
* The preeeure at 3 p.m. on 2l8t February was 28*689 ine., increaung the
range for the year to 2*061 ins.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TAXEir AT ST. ALBAK8 DT 1893.
61
In the autumn (Sept. to Oct.) the mean presBure of the
atmosphere was about tiie average, the temperature was just the
average, with a considerable mean daily range, the air was rather
diy, the sky rather bright, and the rainfall was about the average
and on an average number of days. As in spring and summer,
the nights were, on the whole, colder than usual.
The difference between these seasons and the means of the
seasons for 1877-86 at Watford is shown in the following table : —
DiFFEBEircE TV 1892-93 PBOK Means OF 1877-86 AT Watvobd.
Seasons,
1891-92.
Presfore.
Temperature.
Hnmi-
dity.
Cloud,
0-10.
Force
of
Wind.
Rainfall.
Mean.
Daily
Range.
Total.
Days.
Winter ^
Spring _
Summer.....
Antiinui_
ins.
-052
+ 198
+•050
—•044
-1-6
+45
+2-5
-B-5
+2-3
-H07
— I
-0-3
— 2*0
0-12
+0-I
-04
4^-3
ins.
— 094
-4-iS
+0-35
+'2
—26
— I
K0TS8 OK thb Months.
Jaitpakt. — Cold, with a small daily range of temperature, an
atmosphere of average humidity and rather high pressure, a rather
cloudy sky, and' about an average rainfall on an unusually large
number oi days. Coldest day 2nd, mean 23°-0 ; warmest day 31st,
mean 46°-4. Min. below 32° on 16 days, below 22° on 6 (1st to 6th) ;
max. above 42° on 11 days (below 32° on 4). The first five days
were very cold, having a mean temperature of 24°*9 (9 a.m. 24°-9,
min. 18°-0, max. 32°'0). Rain, or snow, fell every day from
1 Ith to 19th (9 days), and from 25th to 3rd February (10 days),
snow falling on 3rd, 6th, 6th, and 12th to 18th.
Febeuabt. — Rather warm, with about an average daily range
of temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and very low
pressure, a cloudy sky, and a very heavy rainfall on an unusually
large number of days. Coldest day 6th, mean 31°"4 ; warmest day
19th, mean 49°-7. Min. below 32° on 8 days; max. above 42°
on 20 days, above 62° on 2 (18th and 19th). Rain (occasionally
snow) feU every day for the 11 days 8th to 18th, and, with
the exception of 9th and 24th, every day from 8th February to
4th March, snow falling on 12th, 2l8t to 23rd, and 27th. There
was a gale of wind on 10th, and on 21st barometric pressure
was iinusually low, being 28*763 ins. at 9 a.m., 28*702 ius. at
noon, and 28-689 ins. at 3 p.m. At 9 a.m. on the following day
it had only risen to 28*979 ins.
Mabch. — ^Warm, with a large daily range of temperature, a dry
atmosphere of considerable pressure, a bright sky, and a very small
rainfall on very few days. Coldest day 19th, mean 36° *2; warmest
day 31st, mean 62°*7. Min. below 32° on 7 days; max. above 62°
on 23 days, above 62° on 6 (24th to 26th, and 29th to 31st). There
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62 J. HOPinrsoir — ^meteobolooical obsesyations
was one rather cold week, 17th to 23rd, with a mean temperature
of 39°-7 (9 a.m. 37°-6, min. 30^-6, max. 61°0). Kain feU only on
the first four days, and (chiefly as snow, with some hail) on 16th
and 17th. There was thus a period of eleven dajrs without rain in
the first half of the month, and of fourteen days m the second half.
April. — Exceptionally warm, with an excessively lai^ daily
range of temperature, an exceedingly dry atmosphere of very high
pressure, a hright sky, and scarcely any rain. Coldest day 13th,
mean 41°'6; warmest day 20th, mean 61°-4. Min. helow 42° on
21 days, below 32° on 2 (13th and 14th); max. above 62° every
day but 3 (11th to 13th), above 62° on 17 days, above 72° on 6
(19th to 2l8t, and 23rd to 25th). The warmed period was from
19th to 26th, the mean temperature during these eight days being
69°-0 (9 a.m. 57°-7, min. 45°-3, max. 74°-0), about an average
summer temperature. Kain fell only on 16th and 29th (0*06 in. ),
an absolute drought of 29 days ending on the 15th.
May. — ^Very warm, with a large daily range of temperature, a
dry atmosphere of high pressure, a bright sl^, and a very small
rainfall on very few days. Coldest day 31st, mean 48°* 1 ; warmest
day 15th, mean 66°*5. Min. below 42° on 6 days (above 52° on
20th) ; max. above 52° every day, above 62° on 26 days, above 72°
on 5 (5th, and 12th to 15th). The warmest period was from 9th
to 16th, the mean temperature during these eight days being 59°*2
(9 a.m. 59°-2, min. 45°-9, max. 72°-5), thus only a little warmer
than the warmest eight days in April. Rain fell 6nly on Ist, 15th
to 20th, and 29th. A partial drought of 75 days, with an
aggregate rainfall of only 0*45 in., ended on the 15th. During
a thunderstorm on 17th nearly an inch fell (0*93 in.), being
considerably more than half the rainfall of the month. The fall
on 29th was also due to a thiinderstorm.
June. — Warm, with a large daily range of temperature, a very
dry atmosphere of rather high pressure, a sky of average brightness,
and an exceedingly small rainfall on very few days. Coldest day
1st, mean 51°*2 , warmest day 17th, mean 72°*5. Min. below 52°
on 21 days, below 42° on 3 (Ist to 3rd); max. above 62° every day
but two (Ist and 11th), above 72° on 10 days, above 82° on 5 (15th
to 19th). The mean temperature of the six days 14th to 19th was
7l°*8 (9 a.m. 71°*5, min. 56°*8, max. 87°*2), being at least 12°
above the average for the time of the year. Kain feU only on 4th,
6th, 2 Ist to '24th, 26th, and 27th. A partial drought of 32 days,
with an aggregate rainfall of 0*27 in., ended on the 21st.
July. — ^Very warm, with an average daily range of temperature,
a very dry atmosphere of average pressure, a bright sky, and a
considerable rainfall on a large number of days. Coldest day 15th,
mean 55°-3 ; warmest day 8th, mean 74°*3. Min. below 52° on
4 days; max. above 62° every day but one (1 3th), above 72°
on 8 days (Ist to 8th), above 82° on 4 (2nd, 6th, 7th, and 8th^.
The first eight days were the warmest, having a mean temperature
of 67°*7 (9 a.m. 68°*2, min. 54°*5, max. 80°-4). Most of the rain
fell between 8th and 26th, only three days out of these nineteen
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TAXB5 AT ST. ALBANS DT 1893, 68
being without rain. On several days daring this period there
were thunderstorms (on 8th, 9th, 12th, and 26th).
August. — Excessively warm, with a large daily range of tem-
perature, a very dry atmosphere of rather high pressure, a rather
bright sky, and a rather small rainfall on an average number
of days. The eleven days 8th to 18th were the warmest, having
a mean temperature of 72°*0 (9 a.m. 72°*8, min. 59°-8, max.
83^*4), being about 12® above the average for the time of the
year. Coldest day 29th, mean 64°*9; warmest day 18th, mean
79°*6. Min. below 62° on 9 days; max. above 62° every day
but one (27th), above 72° on 17 days, above 82° on 6 (9th, 10th,
and 15th to 18th). No rain fell during the eight days 1 2th to
19th, and only 0*03 in. on one day during the 7 days 24th to 30th,
but one inch fell on the 4 days 20th to 23rd, being nearly half
the fall in the month. There were thunderstorms on 4tili and
10th.
Sbptkmbeb. — Of average temperature, with a rather large daily
range of temperature, a dry atmosphere of average pressure, a
bright sky, and a very small rainfall on about the average number
of days. C!oldest day 21st, mean 45°*8; warmest day 7th, mean
65° '5. Min. below 42° on 6 days; max. above 62® on 20 days,
above 72° on 4 (5th, 6th, 14th, and 15th). The first haH of
the month, during which only 0'20 in. of rain fell in two days,
was exactly 5° warmer than the second half, which had 0*88 in.
of rain on nine days, the mean temperature for the first 15 days
being 58°-6 (9 a.m. 58°'3, min. 49°-0, max. 68°-6), and for the last
15 days being 53°-6 (9 a.m. 53°-2, min. 46°-l, max. 61°-5). Thus,
while the weather from the first to the 15th was warm and dry,
from the 16th to the 30th it was cold, with nearly an average
rainfall. In fact our very warm, bright, and dry summer may
be said to have come to a close in the middle of September.
There was a thunderstorm on the 8th.
OcTOBEB. — Bather warm, with a considerable daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and pressure, a
very bright sky, and a very heavy rainfall, but on about the
average number of days. Coldest day 31st, mean 36°'8 ; warmest
day 15th, mean 60°-8. Min. below 42° on 10 days, below 32°
on 1 (31st); max. above 62° on 27, above 62° on 6 (1st, 14th,
16th, 16th, and 21st). The temperature was very variable, and
the weather became cold towards the end of the month, especially
on the last two days (mean temp. 38°'9). Most of the rain fell
during the first half of the month, the fall after the 14th being less
than an inch, and the excess in the rainfall was almost entirely due
to the fall of 2*02 ins. on the 9th. There was a violent thunder-
storm on the 7th, at its height here between 6-86 and 6*48 p.m.,
during which time the rain came down in torrents, nearly half
an inch falling in the thirteen minutes; the lightning appeared
like balls of fire falling every minute or two, and for part of
the time the thunder was heard whilst the lightning was still
visible. The prevailing colour of the lightning-baUs was blue,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
B4 J. HOPKIKSOK — ^ICEIEOBOLOOICAL 0BSERTATI0N8.
Bometimes with a rather reddish tinge. A gale of wind blew, and
uprooted several trees in the neighbourhood.
NoTEMBEB. — Rather cold, with an average daily range of
temperature, a rather humid atmosphere of considerable pressure,
a cloudy sky, and an average rainfall on about the usual number
of days. Coldest day 23rd, mean 32°*3 ; warmest day 4th, mean
69°-9. Min. below 42° on 26 days, below 32° on 13; max. above
62° on 5 (3rd, 4th, 16th, 17th, and 28th). The temperature was
very variable. Rain or snow fell every day from 13th to 19th, the
total for these seven days being over an inch and a half, or more
than half the total for the month. Snow fell on 1st, 18th, 19thy
and 30th. Barometric pressure was very low on 17th (3 p.m.
29*022 ins.), on the same day there was a gale, on 18th a very
heavy snowstorm, on 19th a severe gale with snow, and snow also
fell on 30th.
Decembeb. — ^Warm, with a considerable daily range of tempera-
ture, an atmosphere of average humidity and pressure, a rather
bright sky, and about an average rainfall on the usual number of
days. Coldest day 2nd, mean 27°*2; warmest day 13th, mean
48°-3. Min. below 32 on 10 days, below 22° on 3 (2nd, 3rd, and
81st); max. above 42° on 23 days, above 62° on 1 day (1 3th).
The first three and the last two days only were cold. Rain fell
every day from 6th to 13th, the total for these eight days being
1*40 in., and every day but one from 19th to 25th, the total for
these seven days being 0*89 in., thus leaving only 0*10 in. for the
rest of the month. Snow fell on 1st, and there was a gale of wind
on 20th, on which day barometric pressure was very low, being
28-986 ins. at 9 a.m. On 30th, when a very cold period com-
menced, it was the highest in the year, 30*750 ins.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
TrariJt. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. VIII, Plate IV.
Mycetozoa
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
X.
FTJETHER NOTES ON THE MYCETOZOA, WITH A LIST OF
SPECIES FROM HERTS, BEDS, AND BUCKS.
By James Sattivdebs.
A Zectur$ dilwered at Waifbrdy X^th D^eemher, 1803.
PLATES IV AND V.
Thebe is not a woodland, bosky dell, or more extended forest
bnt teems with life. Prom the leafy canopy overhead, with its
winged denizens, away down the rough stems of oak and ash,
with their lichens and liverworts, to the spreading moss-covered
roots, exists a multitude of living beings; and this not only in
one spot, for such scenes might be multiplied indefinitely.
In any part of the world — ^from Canada to Ceylon, from England
to New Zealand — would be found in such circumstances innumerable
forms of life. These all agree in certain fundamental points.
They start from a living cell, they are built up of cells, and every
cell, when in activity, contains protoplasm. Do not these facts
suggest that they form part of one organic whole? — that con-
siequently there is no sharp line of demarcation between the animal
and vegetable world? — ^that there are points at which these two
kingdoms coalesce, and that all creatures have descended from a
few primordial types, or possibly from but one ?
On the border-land between the two realms of the natural world
may be placed the creatures now under consideration. In what
may be taken as the initial stage of their life, they exist as minute
spores, many of which float in the air, and are distributed by
llie wind. When these fall on favourable situations, such as rotten
wood or decayed leaves, the covering of the spore becomes
moistened, and the protoplasm within bursts its way through.
These amoebiform bodies are usually elongated or pear-shaped, with
a minute cilium at the narrow end, and are known as *' swarm
cells." They have the power of locomotion, and, like the Amoebse,
frequently assume various shapes, their changes and movements
being presumably effected in the search for food. They have been
seen by careful observers, notably by Mr. A. Lister, to feed on
Bacteria, which they surround by a digestive vacuole, these
microbes being gradually absorbed until no trace of them can be
seen. It is probable that the office of the Mycetozoa in the
economy of nature is similar to that of the white blood-corpuscles
of the human body, in that they destroy germs of disease.
After a brief period of independent existence they lose their cilia
and unite to form what is known as plasmodium, which has the
power of creeping, when favourably circumstanced, and exercises
this power to obtain sustenance. During this stage there is con-
siderable increase in size; the plasmodium grows upon what it
absorbs, be this decayed vegetation or minute forms of life. During
the mobile stage of existence, different genera and species exhibit
VOL. VUI. — PABT ni.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
66 J. SAUXBERS — NOTES ON THB MTCETOZOA.
diverse habits. Some pass their time in the interior of rotten
wood, and apparently do not come to the surface until ready for
the fruiting stage. Others, on the contrary, affect the exterior of
decayed branches and logs, and are hence the most easily found.
The following observations, made in the South Midlands, will
give some idea of the phenomena attending the plasmodium stage.
On one occasion, the writer was examining a decayed tree-root
quite a foot in diameter, in a wood near Harpenden. In the very
centre the woody fibres were saturated with plasmodium, which,
when matured, proved to be that of Hemiarcyria clavata. Some
of the Badhamias prefer the outside of rotten logs and branches.
In a wood in Plamstead parish the plasmodium of Badhamia
utricularis has been seen spread out on the upper side of a fallen
tree, but this was in a very wet autumn. Quite recently, in the
same place, this species was found creeping between the bark and
the wood, but the season was much drier. During the year 1893
Mr. C. Crouch, of Kitchen End, near Luton, had two masses of
Plasmodium of B. utriculariSy which were attached to an old log
under some shrubs in his garden. These were under observation
during the spring, summer, and early autumn. They repeatedly
moved their position, and eventually, after seven or eight months
existence in this condition, formed their sporangia.
Badhamia nitens is usually found, in the rare localities in which
it occurs, on the under side of decayed branches, especially those
of oak. It has the curious habit of concealing itself from view
a day or two before its final emergence for fruiting, at least it
has done so when it has been under our observation, and it
repeated the habit when some of it was sent to Mr. A.
Lister. The following extracts from his letters will illustrate
this statement. "The plasmodium has, I fear, died." — 12th
Feb. 1893. ** The plasmodium died and came to nothing." — 15th
Feb. 1893. "I am delighted to say that I was quite wrong in
thinking that the last batch of plasmodium which you sent was
dead ; it had crept off and hidden itself for a day or two, leaving
a good deal of refuse matter behind it. Yesterday we saw that
it was turning into fruit, so exactly the usual shape of B. utricularis
that we feared it was nothing but that species, but this morning
the mature condition and yellow colour have been obtained, and it
forms the most magnificent example of B, niUns which we have
ever seen." — 19th Feb. 1893. Subsequently to this some plas-
medium of the same species was sent to Mr. H. Groves, of London,
who, under date 11th Jan. 1894, writes: "Thank you very
much for the plasmodium which you so kindly sent to me. It
showed [circulation] beautifully with half -inch obiect-glass and
dark-groiind illumination, and it is really a most curious thing. I
have put it in a fern-case, but I do not know where to look for
it again." My impression is that as it is a winter-fruiting species,
it had crept out of sight preparatory to assuming that stage. The
two local stations for this species are Caddington, Beds, and
Zouches Farm, near Kensworth, Herts, in both of which places the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
J. SAUNDERS — ^irOTBS OV THE MTCBTOZOA. 67
creeping stage has been observed on several occasions. These are
the first British localities for which the plasmodium of this species
has been recorded.
Some Plasmodium of £, nttens was collected in a wood on
Zonches Farm at Christmas, 1892. It was attached to a fungus
(Irpex) that was on a decayed branch of oak. The whole thing —
wood, fungus, and mycetozoon — was frozen hard when obtained.
It rapidly thawed after reaching home, and exhibited movements
for several days. A portion of it was given to a gentleman at
Luton who took a casual interest in the subject. A short time
afterwards he allowed the plasmodium to dry up into the condition
of sclerotium. In this state it existed, looking like a piece of
sealing-wax, until the early spring of 1894. It was then placed
one evening in tepid water, which was kept warm, and during the
succeeding night it exhibited iinusual activity. It continued in a
more or less mobile state for several weeks, when it matured and
formed its fruit.
Whilst the foregoing species are usually found on decayed wood,
as oak and fir, others most frequently occur on dead leaves.
Craterium vufgare affects such situations, and may be seen throw-
ing out its fan-shaped processes formed of a dense network of
veins, but creeping from leaf to leaf, or insinuating itself between
the compacted layers of dead damp foliage. Its dull greenish-
yellow hue renders it inconspicuous and somewhat difficult to
detect. Nor is it so satisfactory for microscopic work as are the
Badhamias, for its circulation is obscured by its partial opacity.
It would seem that it ingests particles of the dead leaves amongst
which it lives, as under a two -inch object-glass it appears to be
crowded with particles of them. Under cultivation we find that it
loses some of its green colour and becomes yellower, more like a
Badhamia. This is confirmed by Mr. C. Crouch, who states that
he has " developed Craterium vulgare from very ochreaceous
Plasmodium, so that there seems to be no limit to variation of
plasmodium-colour in the species."
In Stemonitis fu»ca, which is a wood-haunting species, we have
never succeeded in finding the plasmodium except just prior to
fruiting. It then appears as a white frothy substance, which
rapidly assumes a densely-packed, columnar structure. When
mature it appears like a miniature forest of pines, with dark stems
and intricate branching. Stemonitis ferruginea is of similar habit,
and is distinguished by lemon-yellow plasmodium.
The genus Retieularia is also a wood-haunting group, and so far
as our experience goes is invisible till maturity is approaching.
The largest specimen that has come under our notice was one of
R, lyooperdon, which was attached to a decayed root on the north-east
side of Lilley Hoo. It measured more than four inches long and
three wide. It was intended to secure it for the Museum of this
Society, but it proved to be infested with beetles, which ruined it
as a specimen.
Another species of similar habit is Lycogala epidendrum. Its
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
68 J. SAUNDERS — N0TK8 ON THE MTCETOZOA.
Plasmodium is sometimes found to have stained crimson the wood
on which it grows. Quite recently Mr. C. Crouch observed in Silsoe
Park, Beds, a mass of it, several inches square, which was visible
more than fifty yards away. The sporangia are compacted into
masses which vary in size £rom that of a pea to that of a hazel-nut,
and they may often be seen in groups on fallen logs in early spring.
The species is not uncommon in such places as Sherrards Wood,
near Welwyn, and in the valley of the Ver, near Redboum.
A rare species, which has a deep crimson plasmodium, is Clathro-
ptychium rugulosum. This is less reserved in its habits than is
Lycogala epidendrum, and it creeps about on the surface of decayed
willow logs which are shaded by vegetation.
Brefeldia maxima should be sought for in moist hollows near
streams and springs where decayed logs are to be found. The Plas-
modium is opaque white, and about the thickness of cream. It creeps
about in the decayed vegetation near a rotten log for some time,
and then spreads itself over the wood in a beautiful creamy-looking
mass. When matured the aggregated sporangia (sethalium) become
of a purplish black colour.
Crihraria a/rgillacea has plasmodium of a duU leaden hue when
rising to maturity, and is usually found on decayed conifers.
IHdymium squamulosum is a very abundant species, grovring in
such places as damp ditches where leaves have accumulated, and in
boggy spots under the shade of trees. Its plasmodium is of a dirty
white colour, and in creeping over dead foliage it leaves a number
of vein-like tracks behind. One is enabled sometimes to assume
its proximity from the traces it has left. It is plentiful in the
valley of the Ver, near Redboum. IHdymium farinaceum occurs
amongst dead leaves and twigs which have accumulated in moist
situations. The plasmodium is grey, its dusky hue being probably
partly due to the ingested particles of decayed foliage on which it
feeds. At least we find that some species with a similar habit,
such as Craterium vtdgare^ have this peculiarity, and also have the
power of cleansing themselves from the refuse material, becoming
lighter and clearer in colour just prior to the fruiting stage.
Most of the Physareee have a greyish-white or dirty grey
Plasmodium. That of Physarum leucophaum is with difficulty
distinguished when attached to the bark of oak. That of
P. leucopus is dirty grey in a natural state, but under cultivation
it becomes lighter, and sometimes shows a beautiful network of
veins, appearing almost white when on a dark background. The
Plasmodia of Physarum, Craterium, and Badhamia agree in the
habit of progressing by throwing out fan-shaped processes or veins,
often of the most intricate patterns. (See Plate V.) If they do
not find food, or if their surroundings are not favourable to further
progress, they have the power of retracting and condensing them-
selves into a small compass, thus assuming a resting stage until the
recurrence of congenial conditions.
Fhysarum citrinum^ a handsome species very rarely found in
Britain, has recently been detected in considerable quantity in a
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Trfifift. Herts Nat, Ilist, Soc, Vol. VIII, Plate V,
Plasmodium op Badhamia utricularis.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
I, 8AUNDEBS — NOTBS ON THE MTCETOZOA. 69
shady dell near "Welwyn. There were three patches of it on a
decayed root and the adjoining soil. One portion had mature
sporangia, the second was forming them, and tiie third consisted of
yellow Plasmodium, still in its creeping stage, but which attained
maturity in a day or two. The gathering exhibited many forms of
sporangia, ranging from those with a fully-developed stalk to
others which consisted of a sessile plasmodiocarp.
One of the handsomest and also one of the most frequent of the
Mycetozoa is Arcyria punicea. The plasmodium stage is passed in
rotten wood, and so far as our experience extends it is only
observable when rising to form sporangia. When immature these
are milky white, and in ripening they become a rich crimson. In
the progressive stages the upper part of the sporangium wall is
thrown off, the capillitium extends to several times its former size,
and the spores disperse. Eventually all the contents of the peridia
may be blown away, leaving the cup-shaped base of its wcJl sup-
ported by its short stalk.
The Trichias usually conceal themselves till near the fruiting
time, and are therefore but rarely seen in the creeping stage. The
only occasion on which we have observed the plasmodium of this
genus was once in Luton Hoo Park. A number of white veins were
noticed creeping among the interstices of some bark, over a surface
of several square inches, but even in this instance it was near
maturity, as some portion of the mass was already forming its
sporangia. The white veins and immature peridia showing so
well on the dark background of bark, a photograph of the group
was taken. The species proved to be Trichia varia, which agrees
with most of this genus in that it has white plasmodium, a notable
exception being T. fallaxy in which it may be either white or red.
IHchia Jackii when fruiting generally leaves a quantity of slimy
refuse, which the beginner might easily m'istake for plasmodium.
The sporangia appear as a mass of closely-compacted small white
beads, which, on maturing, assume a rusty brown colour. Another
species with a gregarious habit is Trichia scabray which can readily
be distinguished from the preceding by the slight metallic lustre of
the walls of the sporangia. Trichia affinis is somewhat uncommon^
and may be recognized in the field by its bright yellow hue.
Before leaving this interesting group, it will be well to observe
that in maturing the sporangia great care should be taken not to
dry them too quickly, as interesting gatherings may be spoilt in
this way.
The mcident that has had the most interest for those to whom it
befel — my son and myself — was the discovery of Crihraria violacea.
"We had one day travelled a long distance over parts of Beds and
Herts, and then traversed an extensive wood on Ivinghoe Hills,
near the borders of Bucks. When nearing the edge of the wood,
which had proved almost barren for our special objects of search, we
noticed some very old logs of beech which looked promising. We
separated, each intent on the portion under examination. Presently
my juvenile companion called my attention to a group of immature
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70 J. SAUKDEHS — NOTBB ON TIDS MTCETOZOA.
sporangia which he did not understand. Examination with a lens
diowed that we had undoubtedly before us the sporangia of a
Mycetozoon, appearing as minute white heads on black stalks. A
good supply was secured, and allowed to mature tinder the best
possible conditions. As no species with similar sporangia appeared
to be described in our text-book, specimens were forwj^ed to Mr.
A. Lister for identification. His reply was to the effect that it
was a species that had been found before only in the United States,
in the primeval forests of several mountain-ranges, and was there-
fore a new European record. A few weeks afterwards we revisited
the spot, and again found the sporangia in fair quantity in a fully-
matured condition. It was certainly an interesting discovery,
forming as it does another connecting-link between the life-forms
of the two hemispheres. There can be no suspicion either that it
had been imported by human agency, for it is one of those obscure
forms that can only be detected by persistent search.
Anyone who might take up this subject for investigation would
find himself traversing a comparatively unexplored territory, where
there is abundant room for original research. It would lead him
into the very arcana of nature's mysteries, and at times it would
seem as though the secret of organic life was to be unfolded to him.
Yet, like a ** Will o* the Wisp," it evades his grasp, and he finds
himself still on the threshold of, and not within, the great ** Temple
of Truth." Baffled truly, but not discouraged !
[At the close of the lecture several lantern-slides were shown,
illustrating the structure of the organisms under consideration.
One of these was a preparation of the living plasmodium, or
creeping stage. It was mounted in a moistened glass cell of the
usual size for exhibition by a lantern, and it had been kept on the
person of the lecturer, in the hope that the warmth of the body would
cause the contents to develop movements, which fortunately was
the case. When placed in the lantern, and its shadow projected
upon the screen, it was seen to have thrown out a fan-shaped,
intricate network of veins, showing also the rich yellow colour
of the genus {Badhamia) to which it belongs. Whilst a brief
description of it was being given, the audience and the lecturer
alike were surprised to observe that the creature was receding
towards the piece of decayed wood from which it had crept. " It
moves," was the comment of the lecturer; ** evidently the intense
light and heat are too much for it." And to the gratified surprise
of all present, the organism gradualh^ receded towards the fragment
of wood in which it had been found. The object was then put on
one side until the other slides had been duly examined. After an
interval of about ten minutes it was replac^ in the lantern, when
no trace of the plasmodium could be discerned, it having coUected
itself into a compact mass under the shade of the piece of wood.
Subsequent observation showed that it took three or four days of
careful treatment to enable it to partially recover from the ^ock
it had received, but it never regained its full vigour, and gradually
dwindled away.]
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
j. 8aundeb8 — n0te8 on thb mtcetozoa, 71
Mtoetozoa of Herts, Beds, akd Bucks.
The species included in the following lists have all been found
by myself or my son Edgar, except those marked C, C, which were
collected by Mr. C. Crouch. An asterisk is prefixed to the species
now first recorded for Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire * All the
species from Buckinghamshire were coUectod in Ivinghoe Woods,
and all are new county records. They include one species new to
Europe — Crihraria violacea — ^which is figured on Plate IV.
Hebtfoedshiee.
^Physarum sinuosum (Bull) Eost. Colne. — Caddington,
♦P. citrinum^ Schum. L^. — Welwyn.
P. compresmmy A. & S. Lea. — Knebworth ; C. C.
Craterium vulgare, Ditm. Colke. — Eedboum.
ZeocarptM fragilxB (Dicks.) Rost. Lea. — Sherrards Wood, Welwyn.
*Fuligo septica (Link) Gmel. Colne. — Kensworth. Lea. —
Sherrards Wood, Welwyn.
Badhamia panicea (Fr.) Rost. Colne. — Kensworth.
Didymium sqimmtdosum (A. & S.) Fr. Colne. — ^Eedboum.
*D. clavus (A. & S.) Rost. Lea.— Welwyn.
Chondrioderma difforme (Pers.) Rost. Colne. — Zouches Farm,
near Kensworth. Gibraltar, near Redboum.
Comairicha Friesiana (De Bary) Rost. Colne. — Pepperstock.
♦C pulehella (Bab.) Rost. Colne. — Ashridge.
*Spumar%a dha (Bull) DC. Lea. — Near the Fulling Mills,
Welwyn (on nettles).
Stemonitis fuica. Roth., *forma rufeseens. Colne. — Redboum.
Unerthenema papillatum (Pers.) Rost. Colne. — Caddington.
*Reticularia lycoperdoUy Bull. Ouse. — Lilley Hoo.
Trickia fragilis (Sow.) Rost. Colne. — Bricket Wood.
T. variay Pers. Lea. — Sherrards Wood, Welwyn.
T, contorta (Ditm.) Rost, var. inconsptetta, Colne. — Ashridge.
T. affintBy De Bary. Lea. — Wheathampstead. Sherrards Wood.
T, Jackti, Rost. Colne. — Flamstead.
Hemiareyria clavata (Pers.) Rost. Lea. — Sherrards Wood.
Arcyria einerea (Bull) Schum. Colne. — Caddington. Lea. —
Sherrards Wood, Welwyn.
A, ineamatay Pers. Lea. — Sherrards Wood. Ashridge.
*Zyeoyala epidendrum (Buxb.) Fr. Lea. — Sherrards Wood.
Bedfobdshiee.
*Pi^y«arwi» «»^tfwj» (Batsch) Pers. — Kitchen End; C. C. Flitwick.
P. vtride, Pers. {^Tilmadoche mutabilii, Rost). — ^Mead Hook;
C. C. Limbury. Luton Hoo.
*P. eontextumy Pers. — Flitwick; C, C,
*P, sinuosum (Bull) Rost. — ^Flitwick. Caddington.
*P. eitrinumy Schum. — Caddington.
* For preTious lists for these counties see 'Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol.
VII, pp. 144-146.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
72 J. SAUNDBES — ^NOTBS ON THE MTCETOZOA.
PhyBorum eompressum, A. & S. — Kitchen End ; C. C.
*Crater%um aureum (Schum.J Rost. — ^Flitwick.
*Badhamia macrocarpa (Ces.) Rost. — ^Kitchen End ; C. C.
* Chondrioderma reticutatum^ Rost. — ^Flitwick. (From milky-wliite
Plasmodium.)
C. radiatum (Linn.) Rost.— Clophill ; C. (7. Flitwick. (From
milky-white Plasmodium.)
Lidymium microcarpum (Fr.) Rost. Kitchen End; C. C. (Sept.
1892). Luton Hoo. Forma pertusum. — Mead Hook
Wood; a C.
*B. serpula, Fr.— Flitwick ; C. C.
*D. elavus (A. & S.) Rost.— Flitwick ; C. C.
D, farinac&um, Schrad. — Kitchen ihid; C. C. ♦Yar. minus. —
Luton Hoo.
*I>iachaa Uucopoda (Bull) Rost. — ^Flitwick.
Fnerth&Mma papillatum (Pers.) Rost. — Silsoe ; C. C. (Sept. 1892).
^SUmonitis miorospora^ Lister (=iS. Smithii^ Macbride). — Luton
Hoo.
*Comatr%cha pulchella (Bull) Rost. — ^Flitwick.
*(7. ruhens, Lister. — Flitwick.
*Lamproderma physaroides (A. & S.) Rost. — ^Flitwick.
♦Z. violacmm (Fr.) Rost. — Luton Hoo.
Triohia scahra^ Rost. — Streatley. Luton Hoo.
Frototrichiaflagellifer (B. & Br.) Rost.— Flitwick ; C, C.
F&richana depressa. Lib. — ^Upbury ; C, C.
♦P. cortiealts (Batsch) Rost. — Luton Hoo ; C. C.
BUCEINOHAMSHIEB.
(lyinghoe "Woods.)
Physarwn leueophaum, Fr.
P. leucopus (Link) Rost. (From white Plasmodium.)
Craterium vulgare^ Ditm.
C Uucocephalum (Pers.) Rost.
Fuligo septica (Link) Gmel.
Badhamia panicea (Fr.) Rost,
B. utrtcularis (Bull) Berk.
B. hyalina (Pers.) Berk.
IHdymium aquamulomm (A. and S.) Fr.
Spumaria atba (Bull) DC.
Stemanitis fusca. Roth.
S. microsporay Lister (=5. Smithii^ Macbride).
S. ferruginea^ Ehrh.
Comatricha IVimana, De Bary.
C. typkina (Roth) Rost.
TuhuUna cylindrica (Bull) DC.
Clathroptyehium rttyiUosum (Wallr.) Rost.
Dictydium cemuum (Pers.) Nees.
Crtbraria vidacea, Rex.
C argillaoeay Pers.
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J, 8AT7KDERS— NOTES ON THE MTCSTOZOA. 73
.Retictdaria lyeoperdon, Bull.
Triehia fallax^ Pers.
T. varia^ Pers.
T. sedbray Rost.
T, affinis, De Bary.
T. Jackii, Rost.
Semiaroyria clavata (Pers.) Rost.
JSr. ruhifarmis (Pers.) Rost.
Aroyria puniceay Pers.
A. cinerea (Bull) Schum.
A, ineamata, Pers.
A, nutans (Bull) Grev.
Lyoogala epidendrum, Buxb.
EXPLANATION OF IKE PLATES.
PLATE IV.
(Photographed from drawings in colour by Miss Lister.)
Fio.
1. Badhamia nitent. Group of snorangia ; one showing capillitium. x 9.
2. ,, ,, Cluster of five spores and portion of capillitium. x 150.
3. ,, „ Cluster of five spores and one spore separated, x 300.
4. Fhyaarum citrinum. Group of sporangia, x 9.
6. jDidymiumfarinaceum. Group of sporangia, x 10.
6. ,, „ Capillitium, crystals, and spores, x 140.
7. SUfnonitia ferruginea. Group of immature sporangia, x 5.
** Group of mature sporangia, x 6.
Columella and capillitium after dispersion of spores, x 1 2.
Capillitium and spores, x 300.
Group of sporangia, x 6.
Sporangia, x 80.
Immature sporangium, x 7.
Sporangium more advanced, x 7.
Mature sporansnum ; outer wall fallen off. x 7.
Capillitium and spores, x 140.
Group of sporangia, x 8.
Capillitium and spores, x 140.
PLATE V.
Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularU. x2. (Photographed from nature.)
The whole of the network of yeins here shown was form^ in one night between
11 p.m. and 7 a.m. It was developed from a small mass of Plasmodium about
hall an inch in diameter which occupied a position a little to the right of the
bulb at the base of the illustration. The material was placed in a moistened
cell, when, in its search for food, it rapidly developed pseudopodia connected by
anastomofline veins. It formed two centres of development of the branch systems,
which united at the points of contact, as seen in the illustration. The transverse
cracks in the principal veins are due to shrinkage from the effects of alcohol,
with which the organism was killed.
8.
*t »
9.
ti ft
10.
99 >>
11.
Cfrihraria violaeea.
12.
99 l>
13.
Aroyria panieea.
14.
If f»
15.
» >>
16.
>> M
17.
Trichia varia. Gi
18.
>> >>
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XI.
NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE
DURING THE YEAR 1893.
By A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.
Bead at Watford, llth ApHl, 1894.
The unusual meteorological conditions prevailing during 1893
had, as might have heen expected, considerable influence on insect
life, the dry warm spring causing many species to emerge a full
month before their usual time.
I did not find that the sallows in March and April were very
prolific, repeated visits to Bricket Wood for sallow-beating
yielding only the common TaeniocampsB and a few hybemated
moths. A female twin-spot quaker {Taniocampa munda), however,
taken at sallow, gave me some eggs from which I reai^ a good
series of that moth. Sugaring during the summer was a failure,
a fact which is emphasized by several of my correspondents. I
spread the tempting bait in more than one locality near St. Albans,
but it did not attract any of the rarer Lepidoptera. Mr. C. F.
Pilbrow, of Colney Heath, writes : "I scarcely missed sugaring for
a single evening, though the area was generally very limited —
about half-a-dozen apple trees and plum trees of good size in my
garden. The results were unusually unsatisfactory/' Mr. R. W.
Bowyer, of Haileybury, says : ** Sugaring and light were almost
failures in the summer. In the autumn I did better. I took at
sugar five Nocttui rhomhoidea, an insect which I consider rare in
this neighbourhood." These opinions as to the failure of sugar
in the spring and summer are confirmed by the statements in
the entomological magazines of observers in various parts of the
country. Mr. R. Dymond, of Femey House, East Bamet, how-
ever, appears to have been more fortunate. He says : " So far as
I am concerned the season has been very good, for at sugar in the
garden here insects have been very plentiful." Mr. Bowyer's
experience as to the failure of light as an attraction for insects is
not shared by Mr. Pilbrow, for with regard to the Colney Heath
district he writes: "Light, speaking generally, proved die most
productive source of attraction this year." The same gentleman
reports that " old sacks, boxes, etc., placed about the garden proved
fertile traps, several good things being taken by these means."
Larvse-beating had unusually prolific results, at least in the
number, if not in the rarity, of the insects taken, while for pupae-
digging the season is generally pronounced to have been a most
unproductive one.
The great abundance of larvae in the early months of 1893 is a
matter of common repute. Those of us who took part in the field
meeting at Symond's Hyde, in May, will remember the enormous
quantity of caterpillars, mostly "loopers," which were feeding on
the hazel and hornbeam. I could have collected thousands of the
commoner sorts in a few hours. I think I never saw the oaks at
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LEPIBOPTERA OBSERVED IN 1893. 75
Brickct Wood present such an appearance of devastation as they
did in June, the larvae of that destructive little green moth, Tortrix
viridana, literally eating up every green leaf on some of the trees.
A shake hrought down quite a shower of hoth larvae and pupae of
this species. Mr. Arthur Lewis and I took a considerahle number
of larvae of the feathered thorn moth {Himera pennaria), and also of
the curious-looking larvae of the purple hairstreak {Theela quercua).
In Juno Mr. W. H. Shaw, who was then living in Clifton Street,
St. Albans, brought me a number of small larvae, which turned out
to be those of Cerostoma xylosUllay one of the Tineae. It was a
pale yellowish-green creature, with a broad brownish-red stripe all
along the back ; it fed on honeysuckle, and proved a great pest.
It crept into the house to pupate, seeking such convenient places
as the hollows in the mouldings of the doors and window -frames
wherein to spin its boat shaped cocoon. The moth is a pretty ooe.
On May 15th I found the larva of the large emerald moth feeding
on birch at Bricket Wood. Unfortunately the moth emerged a
hopeless cripple. Mr. Arthur Lewis obtained the larvae of
PteroBtoma palpina on a sallow in his garden. A curious instance
of the power which certain species have to change their colour
in order to adapt themselves to their surroundings, came under
my notice. A number of larvae of the peppered moth {Amphidasys
hettdaria) were reared from the egg, separated into two lots, and
placed in large-mouthed glass bottles. One lot was fed on birch,
which has a brown shining stem, and the other on the false acacia
{Rohtnia pseudo-acacia), which has green petioles. Those which
fed on birch became of a dark shining brown colour, while the
others were a bright green, the larvae assuming in each case the
tint of the stem or leaf -stalk of the plant on which they were feeding.
I am pleased to be able to report that I have received communi-
cations from several fresh correspondents this year. Lists of
captures in their several localities have been sent by Colonel
Gillum, East Barnet ; Mr. S. H. Spencer, jun., Gladstone Road,
Watford; and Mr. Noel Heaton, Sans Souci, Watford.
Mr. S. H. Spencer's list of captures includes Notodonta dictaa
(larva), Asteroscopus sphinx, Basychira pudibunda, Selenia iUuatraria
{tetraiunaria), Pseudoterpna pruinata, Fhorodesma pustulata, Ligdia
adustata, Cheimatohia boreata, JEmmelesia affinitata, Uupethecia
minutatay Phibalapteryx tersata, F, vitalbata, Scotosia rhamnata,
Cidaria silaceata, Acronycta rumicis, Calamia lutosa, Cerigo matura,
Luperina cespitts, Apamea opMogramma, Agrotis puta, Bianthcecia
carpophaga, Hadena dissimilis, H, genista, and Habrostola triplasia,
Nyssia hispidaria he took several specimens of, on oak trees in
Cassiobury Park, but unfortunately it was not found again this
year, at least Mr. Cutts and I searched for it in vain, and Mr.
Spencer tells me that ho was equally unsuccessful. Several rare
moths were taken by Mr. Spencer at the electric light at Messrs.
Andre and Sleigh's Works at Bushey, and also on the street lamps.
He has reared Lophopteryx eamelina from ova from Bricket Wood,
Bicranura bifida from ova found on aspen, Leuooma salieiB from
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
76 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON LEFIDOPTERA
larvsB from poplars, and of Acronycta leporina he found twelve larvae
on birch. Altogether Mr. Spencer has been very successfol, and
his list includes five species which so far as our record goes are
new to the coanty. They are, Agrotis puta, Hadena dimmilis,
Selmia illustraria (tetralunaria), Cheimatohia hareata^ and JSuphi-
theeia minutata, Mr. Spencer is to be congratulated on this result
of his labours.
In Mr. Heaton's list, which includes many species taken by Mr.
Wiggs, I find Dicranura furctday L, hifda, Notodonta ziczae, Peclura
tnonachay Demos eorylx, Aeronyeta aeerisj A. megac^hala, Apamea
ophiogrammay Agrotis saueiay Panolis piniperday Nyssia htspidaria,
and Geametra paptlionaria. His list contains 252 species.
Last year I briefly reported the capture of the beautiful footman
moth (beiopeia puiehella) at East Bamet. Being a rare insect
and a species new to Hertfordshire, I took an opportunity of
going to East Bamet to see it. The moth is in the small
collection belonging to the Boys' Farm Home, and it was very
courteously shown to me by Mr. John Bowden, the master. It
is undoubtedly a specimen of Beiopeia pulchella, but is unfortu-
nately rather badly set. Mr. Riihl, the schoolmaster, captured it,
in 1892, on the railway-bank near Oakleigh Park Station, and just
within the county boundary. Although a search has been made,
no other specimens have been seen. My visit to East Bamet
enabled me to inspect two small but interesting collections, one at
the Home above referred to, and the other in the possession of
Colonel Gillum, of Church Hill House. Through the kindness of
Colonel Gillum I have been able to make a list of his insects,
captured at East Bamet, and shall enter them in our Record Book.
They include specimens of Zycana argioluSy Bomhyx eastrensisy
Miopia prosapiaria {fascia/ria) taken by Colonel Gillum in one of
the hedges on Church Farm, Choeroeampa porcellus, Spilosomafuli'
ginosay Aretia villicay Chesias spartiata, and other rare insects. The
collection at the Boys* Farm Home also contains some uncommon
species, such as Psilvra monachay bred from larvae taken locally,
Sphinx convoknUiy and Notodonta dictaoides. Many of the insects
were captured by the boys, who are wisely encouraged to spend
their leisure in pursuits of this kind.
BUTTERFLIES.
The species of butterflies generally reputed to be natives of
Britain number 65, of which no less than 46 have been recorded by
different observers as occurring in Hertfordshire. The remaining
19 are extinct, rare, or local species, the majority of which, it may
safely be predicted, will never be seen flying within our borders,
though there are one or two species which we may hope will some
day be entered in our Coimty list. Twenty-six species have been
taken by Colonel Gillum, at East Bamet ; by Mr. S. H. Spencer,
jun., at Watford ; by Mr. N. Heaton in the same neighbourhood ;
and by your Recorder ; but though the number happens to be the
same m each case, the lists of species are not exactly identical.
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OBSEBYED IN HSBTFORDSHIBB HT 1893. 77
The early summer months of last year were marked by an
abundance of butterfly life. Mr. J. J. Willis, of Harpenden,
writes: '*The large white cabbage-butterfly {PierU hrasBtoa) and
the small white cabbage-butterfly {Pieris rapa) were exceedingly
numerous throughout the season, although in this neighbourhood
the damage done by their caterpillars appeared to be much less
than usual. This was also the fact with regard to the magpie-
moth {Abraxas ffrossulariata)^ which, although most abundant, pro-
duced fewer larvae than in some former years. Was this due to
their destruction by birds?" On the other hand, Mr. Pilbrow, of
Colney Heath, points out that with regard to the YanessidsB, a
diametrically opposite state of things occurred. ** Almost every
bunch of nettles, " he says, ** contained larvse of Vanessa to,
V, atalantaf or F. urticuSy yet only the second of the trio was at
all common in the perfect state."
Among the butterflies there are some very early appearances to
record. The pretty little grizzled skipper {SyricMhus maka) was
taken by me on the Harpenden Road, St. Albans, near the Rifle
Butts, on April 9th, or about a month before it usually appears. It
is a very bold and familiar insect. It likes to bask on the sunny
road, and when disturbed returns to the same spot time after
time, like some of the Yanessidse. Having no net with me I tried
to capture this one with my hat, which I succeeded in placing
over it four or five times before I could fairly bag my game.
Another rather early record is Mr. Bymond's note of the capture
of the pearl-bordered fritillary {Argynnis euphrosyne) on April 26th.
It will be remembered tiiat one of the great entomological
features of the year 1892 was the remarkable abundance of the
beautiful clouded-yellow butterfly {Colias edusa), 1 referred to
this at some length in my last annual report. I have only one
record of its re-appearance in Hertfordshire in 1893, and that is
by Mr. J. J. Willis, who says that a few specimens were seen at
Harpenden. Mr. N. Heaton, of Sans Souci, Watford, records the
captnire of one specimen of this insect on August 29th, 1889. Mr.
Heaton says: ''I should be glad of an explanation of the state-
ment, found in all the text-books I have seen, that C. edusa haunts
clover-fields. I was at Deal in 1892, when this species was
abundant, and never caught a single specimen in a clover-field, but
found them in plenty around such plants as dandelion, ragwort, or
whatever yellow flowers were then out ; situations where I should
have expected to find it had it not been for the statement in the
text-books. C, hyale I noticed was partial to corn-fields." That
C. edma does haunt clover-fields is a fact to which most entomolo-
gists can testify, but I have noticed that it is very partial to
railway-banks and waste ground. It must not be forgotten that
the larva is a clover-feeder.
The orange-tip butterfly appeared to be more plentiful than
usual, a fact which was also noticed by Mr. Willis. Messrs.
Latchmore and Gatward, of Hitchin, who have sent me a joint
report^ speak of it as coming out unusually early and flying in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
78 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA
clouds. Mr. Heaton tells me that the specimens he took last year
were all of a small size, one of them only measuring 1^ inches
across the wings.
An insect which appears to be getting scarcer with us is the
large tortoise-shell butterfly ( Vanessa polycMoros). Some years ago
I used to take this plentifully near St. Albans, and it even used to
venture into the garden at The Hollies, but of late it seems to have
almost entirely disappeared. Mr. F. Latchmore, of Hitchin, writing
on this subject, says: "Formerly this insect was common at
Ickleford. The chrysalises were to be seen hanging from the
coping of the walls near the church opposite some lime-trees. I
have not seen a pupa-case at that spot for some years." Mr.
Spencer records the capture of one specimen at Bricket Wood in
1892, and he saw another in Cassiobury Park in 1893. It is
several years since I saw this insect on the wing.
In speaking of the Fritillaries, reference need only be made to
two insects. The pearl-bordered fritillary {Argynnis euphrosyne)
was unusually common. Mr. Dymond mentions its occurrence at
Ayot on April 26th, and when the Society visited that place on
May 13th it was still to be seen sporting over the green outside the
gates of Brocket Hall Park. Messrs. Latchmore and Gatward, of
Hitchin, inform me that at Hitch Wood it was taken in some
numbers. The same recorders mention the fact that later on the
high brown fritillary {A, adippe) appeared in the same locality.
A careful examination of the plants of the dog-violet round the
outside of the wood did not lead to the discovery of the larvse.
Last year the capture at Broxboume of a single specimen of the
chalk-hiU blue {LyoBna corydon) was placed on record, and I then
expressed the opinion that though this insect had not hitherto been
recorded for Hertfordshire, it ought to occur on the hills in the
north and west of the county. I am glad to be able to mention
that Messrs. Latchmore and Gatward state that it abounds at Lilley
Hoo. The same two careful observers report that in the cutting
of the Cambridge and Hitchin line they saw some specimens of the
little blue {Lycana minima) at rest on some rushes in a wet spot
on the bank side. This insect has appeared before in our county
lists.
At a recent meeting of the Entomological Society, some interest-
ing varieties of the small copper butterfly {Polyommatus phlceas)
captured in Middlesex were shown. This pretty little insect was
observed in unusual quantities everywhere, and my Hitchin corre-
spondents especially call attention to its abundance. I should be
glad to learn if any aberrations in markings were noticed in this
butterfly in our own county. Mr. A. Lewis and I again took a
fair number of larvee of the purple hairstreak, both at Bricket
Wood and at Symonds Hyde. They are oak-feeders and not
difficult to rear. Mr. Heaton reports the capture of the white-
letter hairstreak at Bricket Wood in August, 1891, and tells mo
that Mr. T. M. Goadby caught three specimens in Cassiobury Park
in the same year.
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0B8EBVED IN HEBTFOKDSHIRE IN 1893. 79
HAWK-MOTHS.
I have pleasure in recording the capture in St. Albans of two
full-grown larvsB of the death's-head moth (Ach&rontia atropoa).
On July 12th Mrs. Ashdown kindly sent me a larva which had
been found in the grounds of Mr. A. Mcll wraith, at Ctimpbellfield.
It was a well-marked dark vaiiety, and went to earth almost
immediately. At about the same date one of Mr. Arthur Lewis's
gardeners rescued another caterpillar of this moth from the tender
mercies of a small boy. It was crawling across the road in Grange
Street, St. Albans, evidently seeking a convenient spot for pupa-
tion, when it attracted the attention of an urchin, who was on
the point of smashing it with a large stone. Both these specimens
went through the pupa state successfully, and the perfect insects
emerged at the end of September or the beginning of October,
but as I was from home I cannot give the exact dates.
Mr. Latchmore sends me an interesting note about the death's-
head moth. He tells me that an old Bedfordshire farmer has been
interested in his men finding a lot of the larvee in potato-digging.
^* He put a number in a pot and placed them in his garden,
thinking to hatch them naturally, a^ he said. One of his men
put seven or eight into a jar filled with earth, and the result
was that the farmer's, which were out of doors, were all mouldy
and dead in the spring, whilst the labourer's, which were in
the warm chimney comer, all came out and flew about the
cottage." Mr. Latchmore says that no specimens of either this
moth or Sphinx eonvohtUi were taken last year at Hitchin, though
nearly all the hawk-moths noticed last season have been equally
common again.
Miss Ormerod informs me that a fuU-grown larva of the eyed
hawk-moth (Smerinthm ocellatus) was found at Torrington House,
St. Albans, about the middle of August. Mr. Arthur Lewis has
in his collection an interesting moth which appears to bo a hybrid
between the poplar hawk-moth {8. populi) and the eyed hawk-
moth {S, oeeliatus). Mr. Cutts took the larvae of the latter moth
off his apple-trees again last year, and those of S. populi at the
end of Nascot Wood Eoad. Mr. Charles Rothschild figures and
describes a very curious aberrant form of the lime hawk-moth
(iS. alia) in the * Entomologist ' for February.
Mr. C. F. Pilbrow, of Colney Heath, reports that the larvae
of the elephant hawk-moth ( ChoBroeampa elpmwr) were very scarce.
He only took five, all being, strange to say, green. In other years
he has taken dozens, but had only found about two per cent, green.
Mr. Pilbrow had formed the theory that the unusually bright
weather had affected the colour, but this was upset by finding
another batch in Hampshire, all of which were very dark. They
were full fed quite a month earlier than usual. Of the five
green specimens four were perceptibly " stung," and Mr. Pilbrow
suggests that this may possibly affect the colour. These larvee
are to be looked for along the streams, feeding on water-betony and
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80 A. E. GIBBS — K0TB8 ON LBPIDOPTEBA
other plants. Mr. Heaton has several times found the larysB of
this species on the banks of the canal, feeding on Impatiens fuka^
but he says that he has not succeeded in rearing them, as he could
not get the food home without withering, and they would not eat
a substitute.
One of the most remarkable features of the past season has been
the great abundance of the humming-bird hawk-moth {Maerofflosia
stellatarum). One bright day, I think in July, I noticeid a number
of people assembled in front of Mr. F. Beal*s office in St. Peter's
Street, St. Albans, and I found that their attention had been
attracted by these insects flying about the jasmine in front of the
house. Mr. Beal's clerk told me that he had seen a great many of
them hovering round the flowers. Mr. Henry Lewis had a re-
markable experience with this insect. He was standing in
Sparrowswick Wood, wearing some honeysuckle in his coat, when
one of these moths hovered before it and extracted the honey. It
flew away, but with remarkable persistency came back again to
suck the sweet nectar from the flower. This was in September.
Mr. Pilbrow says that at the harvest festival held in the Church at
Colney Heath, dozens of these insects were attracted by the floral
decorations, and their humming was very noticeable. Mr. Latch-
more reports that this moth "has been seen everywhere right
through the summer until the cold weather." He took several at
the windows inside his house, and ** observed them in numbers in
the garden in the hot sunshine, resting on a brick wall or wooden
fence." Miss Ormerod noticed the moth flying at Torrington
House up to October 14th. In the autumn Mr. Dymond observed
single specimens of this insect flying swiftly over the geranium
beds in his garden at Femey House, East Bamet. Mr. Bowyer
writes from Haileybury: ** Macro ffldssa stellatarum was common,'
though not strikingly so. I have never seen the larv© here. On
the cliffs near Dover it occurs on both Galium verum and G. moUugo,
preferring the former." Mr. E. Hartert, curator of the Zoological
Museum, Tring, says that M. stellatarum was not rare in that
district. Several were taken on the flowers in the yard behind
the Museum, and he saw a few in his own garden. Mr. Hartert
informs me that in Germany it is nowhere rare, although never
common. Mr. Heaton reports the capture of several specimens
this year, and also in 1888.
Mr. Pilbrow netted a flne specimen of the hornet clear-wing
moth {Trochilium apifarme) at Colney Heath. Messrs. Latchmore
and Gatward inform me that this moth is common at Hitehin, but
exceedingly difficult to capture in the larva state. They noticed
on some aspen-trees perforated by this larva places where some
birds (probably nuthatches) had dug several pupsB out of the bark.
The clu*ysalis may be found in the spring near the outside of its
burrow.
OTHEB MOTHS.
Messrs. Latchmore and Gatward record the occurrence of the
green forester {Ino statices) at Lilley Hoo. Mr. Heaton failed
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0B6BBYED IN HEBTFORDSHI&S IN 1893. 81
to find it in a field near Rouse Bam Lane, Watford, where it
is generally plentiful. Mr. Spencer had a somewhat similar
experience. I have taken it flying with the common bumet-moth
in a field between Green Street and Theobald Street, near Elstree.
In the summer Mr. Cutts found the larvte of the cinnabar- moth
{JSuchelia jacobaa) in great abundance near his house. He sent
some to Mr. A. Lewis, which were nearly all ** stung," but those
I got from the same place are now in the chrysalis state and
appear to be free from this infestation. Mr. Heaton says that he
finds the moth in only one field of small area, and has only taken
one specimen elsewhere. I do not find this species to be very
common at St. Albans, but I heard of several specimens being seen
last year.
In my last year's report I alluded to the discovery of a large
number of the larvae of the goat-moth (Cossus ligniperda) at
Hitchin by Mr. Latchmore. He was good enough to send me
some of them, which duly pupated, and, in June last, emerged.
A larva of A$ronycta alni was taken by Mr. Pilbrow, of Colney
Heath, upon * * acacia ' * on the lawn at Oaklands in July. Ho searched
very closely, but failed to find another. Being unable to find the
proper food for it, it died. Mr. Bowyer, of Haileybury, reports with
reference to this moth : ** A larva of A, alni was brought to me
and at once entered a thistle stem. On looking at it to-day
(7th Feb., 1894) I find that it died without pupating. This
was new to our Haileybury list." I was last year able to report
two other records of the occurrence iu Hertfordshire of this rare
moth. Mr. Bowyer was also fortunate in securing another rarity
in the great prominent {Nbtodonta trepida)^ which has only been
recorded for one other Hertfordshire locality, viz. Sandridge, where
it was taken by Mr. A. F. Griffith. Mr. Bowyer says : "I bred
from the egg a fine series of N. trepida. The female was caught
in one of our dormitories in 1892."
Mr. Pilbrow tells me that though he has not found the puss-moth
{JDicranura vinula) at Colney Heath, he has seen traces of it. I get
it occasionally at St. Albans. Mr. Cutts, of Silverdell, Nascot
Wood Eoad, Watford, says : ** Judging from the way in which
the foliage was eaten, 2). vinula must have been fairly common
on my poplars. I did not notice them until just upon full-fed,
but 1 have three pupae from the larvae I took, and have since
found two others in the garden." Messrs. Latchmore and Gatward
tell me that the larvae were found on some weeping-willow trees
at the Hitchin Town Cemetery. The same recorders also report
that several prominents were taken last season on the same trees.
In hunting for kitten cocoons on the bark of wiUows and poplars
Mr. Latchmore met with no success until February 8th of this
year, when after infinite labour he dug out two specimens, which,
he says, **may after all be ichneumoned," and he continues : ** You
disturb some queer creatures in tearing off the bark of these trees
with a * jemmy.' The other day I exposed beetles in great numbers
and of brilliant colours, ladybirds, a queen wasp, and some luminous
VOL. Tin. — PART HI.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
82 A. 13. GIBBS— KOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA
centipedes, which I at once recognized as the little creature I
have often taken on a footpath on a humid evening in summer."
Mr. Pilbrow has failed to take the centre-barred sallow ( Cirrhoedia
xerampelina) this year. The specimens he has secured hitherto
were taken on or near ash-trees, and had not long emerged. He
finds that the best time to look for them is between noon and early
evening. The fact that they were taken on ash-trees seems to
indicate that the larva might be worth searching for. It is an
ash-feeder. This is not a common insect with ns, though I have
taken it at light at St. Albans, and Mr. Griffith records it from
Sandridge.
The shark-moth {CucuUia umhratica) is recorded from East
Barnet by Colonel Gillum, and Mr. Pilbrow reports its capture
on a fence at Colney Heath in the bright sunshine.
A specimen of the emperor-moth {Satttmia pavonia) was also
taken in daylight on a fence by Mr. Pilbrow, it apparently having
just emerged, and he has taken Acronycta ligustri (?), Cossus ligni-
perda, and Smeranthm tilia in the same way. S^ pavonia is one
of the moths of which the males may be taken by what is known
as ** assembling." The female should be put in a musUn-covered
box, and if there are any males in the neighbourhood they are
attracted to the spot. Mr. Lewis took a moth in that way last
spring.
Mr. A. Sainsbury Verey, of Heronsgate, Kickmansworth, writes
that he took a specimen of the bird's- wing moth {Dipt^rygia
scahrimcula) at that place. He has favoured me with the following
notes with regard to the larvae of this moth : ** Some years ago,
when residing at Barnes, I was one day in August collecting the
caterpillars of Chmrocampa porcellus, when I found some brownish
larvse, with somewhat darker and also white stripes running along
their bodies, feeding upon a species of coarse rank grass, which
was growing with the Galium saxatile, npon which, together with
G. veruniy C. parcellus feeds. These I took home, when they
quickly span-up in loose cocoons under some dead leaves on the
surface of the earth in the rearing- cage, and, emerging in the
following June, proved to be the Bipterygia pinastri of Newman.
I see that Newman gives * various species of docks ' as the food-
plants, but all the caterpillars I found were on the coarse grass,
although, as they so very soon changed to pupae, I cannot actually
say that they were feeding upon it."
Among the insects in Colonel Gillum's collection may be mentioned
the lappet-moth {Zasiocampa quercifolta), which was taken at East
Barnet. It was caught by one of the boys in the Farm Home
and given to Colonel Gillum. There are four other Hertfordshire
records for this moth. A full account of Z. qitercifolia and its
habits, together with life-like figures of the larva and perfect insect,
appear in Miss Ormerod's * Beport of Observations of Injurious
Insects for 1893.'
Mr. Cutts reports that Leucania comma and L. pallens were
plentiful in the autumn, but he did not see any earlier in the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSBBTBD IK HEBTFOBDSHIBE IK 1893. 83
year, when sugar was a complete failure. There was a very fine
second brood of Agrotia segetum in the autumn, when he secured
a nice series, and also took one specimen of A, saucia, Noctua
C-nigrum was plentiful, and of that also he took a good series.
He also captured specimens of Anchoeelis Uturay but A, lunosa he did
not see at all. Cerastis vaccinii and Scopelosoma 8<Uellitia were very
abundant, the latter being especially plentiful and fine. He took
a long series of Xanthia fulvago (cerago) and several specimens
of the variety flavescem. He also secured X. flavago {silago) and
a few specimens of X, gihago. Ffdogophora meticulo%a has been
fairly common, and he was so fortunate as to take one specimen
of Colocampa vettista. A friend of Mr. Cutts also took Euclidia mi
and Heliaca tenehrata near by. My correspondent has done very
little with the geometers. Himera pennaria was common in the
larval form, and Mr. Cutts took manj caterpillars of Hyhemia
defoliaria, which did not succeed with him. He let them go down
into peat-moss, which was probably too dry for them. From
some self-sown mullein plants in the garden Mr. Catts took a good
many larv© of Cuctdlia verhasciy which are now emerging.
Mr. Bymond reports the chimney-sweeper moth {Atrata ehixro-
phyUata) to be conmion at East Bamet, and that last year it was
unusually abundant. Of this insect Mr. Dymond finds it difficult
to capture specimens which are in any degree perfect, for after
it has been flying about for a day or two it loses the sooty blackness
of its wings. Mr. Pilbrow takes this moth annually, but only
finds it in one comer of a large field, which comer, about two
acres, is laid down with permanent grass.
Mr. Dymond found the larvas of the figure-of-eight moth
{Bilopa earuleocephala) to be particularly abundant in the early
part of the year, but did not observe a corresponding increase
in the number of images in the autumn. He attributes this to
the fact that a large number of the larva) were " stung " by
ichneumons, for out of about fifty larvae which he took for breeding,
only about thirty resulted in images, the rest being the prey of
the parasite. Mr. Filbrow also comments on the large number
of the larvae both of this insect and of JSriogaater lanestrisy the
hedges in many places being nearly ruined by them.
On April 23ixi I took a number of larvae of Xanthia oitrago
at Gorhambury. They were concealed in rolled or united leaves
of lime. They emerged in August, and proved to be rather light-
coloured varieties. Mr. Dymond took a few specimens of this moth
at sugar, and also about two dozen specimens of X. flavago. This
appears to have been a flavago year, that moth being commoner
than usual in most localities. Mr. Cutts also reports taking
X. flavago J and Mr. Bowyer writes : ** Flavago was common
both last year and the year before : we do not as a rule take many
here." Mr. Dymond captured about a dozen specimens of Calgmnia
diffinis at sugar, and found C. affinis to be common. Other insects
which Mr, Dymond reports to be commoner than usual last year
are : JEuolidia mi, Agrotis Begeium^ Noctua augwy Anchocelis litura,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84 LEPIDOPTEKA. OBSEBYED IN 1893.
Xanthia etrcellarisy Cdlymnia trapezina, Hadena protea, and Miana
strigilis.
Miss Selby, of Battler's Green, Aldenham, tells me that her bee-
hives are a great deal infested by the wax-moths. In December
she sent me a number of specimens of Galleria mellonella, which
were flying about the kitchen. Some old wax from the hives had
been brought into the house, and the warmth caused the moths to
emerge from their chrysalises at this unusual date. I have some-
times found the smaller wax- moth (Achrc^a grisella) very trouble-
some in my hives. These insects are wax-feeders, the larvae
eating their way through the honey- comb, and sometimes causing a
great deal of damage. Mr. T. B. Blow, of Welwyn, thinks that if
the bees are kept strong they will turn the grubs of the wax-moth
out of the hives. He says that he rarely hears of a case of really
serious injury caused by them.
In conclusion, I must thank my correspondents who have
rendered such valuable help. I would like to again emphasize
the necessity of our county entomologists keeping a record of the
appearances of rare insects, and informing me of the same. During
the year several friends have sent me moths which they have
found, and although in some cases they were only very common
insects, occasionally a rare one came to hand, and I welcome all
help of this kind. As a rule a moth will travel safely if sent
alive in a pill-box, packed inside a tin to keep it from being
smashed in the post. Moths sent in this way often deposit eggs
and enable one to study the insect from the ova to the imago.
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XII.
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
A WONBEEFTJL ANIMAL.
By the President, Aethue SxRADLroG, M.E.C.S., F.Z.S.
Delivered at the Annual Meeting^ 27th Fehruaryy 1894, at Watford.
Ladies and Gentlemen", —
I purpose to take as my text to-night the dictum that the
** proper study of mankind is man," hut in a literal and more
prosaic sense than that intended hy the poet. Indeed, the line
which I shall pursue is the very converse of that implied hy the
quotation ; for, with the higher attrihutes of man — ^mental, moral,
intellectual, or spiritual — I shall, of course, not attempt to deal.
I am going to say a few words ahout man the animal, in relation
to, and in comparison and contrast with, the rest of the animal
world; and I have presumed to select this subject on the grounds
that, in the first place, my past life in the wilds has afforded me
exceptionally advantageous opportunities of studying this noble
animal in his natural and noblest condition, so far as bodily cha-
racteristics go ; and secondly, because it is my lot to follow as
a profession that branch of N'atural History — ^for it is nothing else
— ^known as medicine.
Let me say at the outset that, although I am going to speak,
and to speak with intense admiration, of man viewed as an animal
and nothing more, I am not taking the materialistic platform too
commonly adopted in science nowadays, that man is an animal
and nothing more. It is true that the gulf between him and
beast is not to be found in structure, but is an intellectual one
only — and that not one of character but of degree, utterly value-
less for the purposes of classification. Nevertheless, that gulf
remains so wide, so immeasurably profound, that man must
always occupy a place apart in creation. But of course it is
patent to aU that we are built up on the same general plan and
design as the creatures which come immediately below us in the
scale of life; we have similar eyes, ears, tongues, similar senses
and corresponding likes and dislikes arising out of the exercise of
those senses, pleasures of appetite, susceptibility to pain, and so
forth. And therefore it is perfectly justifiable, as it seems to me,
for us, as a Society avowedly devoted to the investigation of the
whole phenomena of Nature, to take man and study him for the
time being on precisely the same principle that we might a cat
or frog ; and indeed he is well worth it, for no more wonderful
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86 A. 8TRADLING ANNIVER8AHT ADDRESS I
animal has ever trodden this earth. And I venture here to enter
a protest against the tendency to underrate this remarkahle animal
which appears to prevail at the present day. In popular accep-
tation the proper study of mankind seems now to be any other
animal, from a microbe to a mammoth, rather than our own
species. So far is this really the case, that the British Associa-
tion has recently sent round memoranda, begging societies of this
sort not to neglect among their observations to record facts relating
to ethnology and other topics pertaining to humanity. We have in
consequence just added that word to our schedule of subjects for
consideration. Then, again, we constantly hear injurious comparisons
instituted between ourselves and the lower animals. Probably we
have all suffered much in our youth from those hateful insects,
the industrious ant and the busy bee ; but even now we frequently
get the exclamation, "Ah, which of us could do that?" from
people of cheap, second-hand, philosophical proclivities, when they
see anything on the part of an animal which strikes them as clever
or ingenious, — the very people who, as a rule, scornfully repudiate
the idea that we are of one flesh and blood with the rest of
creation. No one can delight in the marvels of animated nature
more than I do, for I have lived in close and constant companion-
ship with animals of various species all my life ; but I confess that
it does make me indignant when I hear them lauded at the expense
of that crown and miracle of evolution, myself. For, as I shall
hope to point out presently, man is far and away the best aU*
round animal, even from a purely physical aspect.
Now, where shall we put man in the zoological scale? Man,
to whom the question is necessarily addressed, usually replies : At
the top, as high up as possible ; not like the little boy at school,
who, on being asked which was the highest animal, answered that
it was a giraffe ! It is very doubtful, though, whether there are
any structural grounds sufficiently valid to justify this position^
If we agree with one of the schools of systematists of the present
day, that specialization of structure should be taken as the criterion
of altitude of type, then man, though undoubtedly ranking very
high in this respect, must yield precedence to the bat and the
whale, both of whom have become more modified than he in adap-
tation to their environment. On the other hand, if we throw in
our lot with another school who hold that specialization should
be regarded rather as evidence of degradation, as evincing de-
parture from perfection of type, then, although not quite at the
bottom, man would have to t^e a very low seat indeed. I have
attempted to demonstrate in a pre\'iou8 lecture that there is no
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A WOin>£aFUL ANIMAL. 87
absolute zoological specialty which serves to distinguish man from
the rest of the animal world. He is lord of creation by virtue of
his intellectual supremacy alone; and though it is impossible to
deny that the intellectual quality is shared in some degree by the
brutes — for in many of them we see evidence, not only of cere-
bration, but of ideation, of classification and judgment, with a very
obvious and definite concept of the ego — yet this supremacy is so
great as to leave it little matter for wonder that in time past man
should have semi-deified his mind as the immortal part of him, and
regarded it as synonymous with the soul. Later knowledge has
shown this to be untenable, since the mind may be destroyed at
will by a simple surgical operation, and is in fact not seldom so
destroyed by accident, while it is subject to decay and death from
disease quite independently of the body. Mind is merely the
function of a tissue, the secretion of the brain-substance ; but the
utter disproportion between the increase of this tissue and its
developed action is perhaps the most marvellous and least ex-
plicable of all human phenomena. Our brain is only about three
times as large as that of a gorilla or chimpanzee, and very little
more elaborate in its elemental complexity; yet no one would
dream of stating its resultant function, the mind, as equivalent
to thrice or three hundred times that of the ape. And then look
at the enormous progression that goes on, century after century.
Everywhere outside man we find psychical fixity; but if the
increment of mind during no more than the last fifty years could
receive material expression in anatomical factors, bone, muscle, and
artery, it would yield basis enough to found a new species. For
this stupendous evolution, practically unaccompanied by corre-
sponding structural development, there is, so far as I know, only
one parallel throughout nature; but there w a parallel, in the
yenom-gland of a poisonous serpent. This gland is to all appear-
ance simply a common parotid, the exact analogue of those which
swell up so uncomfortably and ridiculously when we have mumps.
All snakes have them ; but how or why the secretion, an oixiinary
saliva, should acquire so remarkable a property in the lethal species
is a mystery as little to be solved as the origin of the human mind.
Not only in our anatomy and physiology, but, as it seems to
me, in our acts and deeds, if we analyse them, do we present
as much theme for wonder as any creature outside the genus
Momo, May I give an illustration of what I mean ? We are
lost in admiration, and with good reason too, at the exquisite
instinctive nicety and calculation of distance displayed by the
squirrel or gibbon in leaping from one slender bough to another,
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88 A. STKADLDTG AXJnTEBSAXI ADDRESS:
Bpringing without hesitation and alighting with unfailing accuracy
on the desired point, the impetus employed being no fraction
more or less than that demanded by the exact requirements of
the interval. Very beautiful is this to contemplate, but to my
mind not half so marvellous as the spot stroke at billiards, as
played by an expert — the precision, the almost microscopic
delicacy, the judgment, the correct apportioning of force; above
all, the command of nerve involved to make stroke after stroke
with so unerring an aim. Still further, we have to reflect that
this aptitude, which has become well-nigh an instinct with the
player, has been acquired by him during a portion only of one
life-time — heredity is no factor in the case ; while with the
squirrel the faculty has been gained by the accumulated experience
of thousands and tens of thousands of generations. So, too, when
we catch a ball thrown up in the air, we calculate the trajectory
and place our hand almost intuitively in the line of its descent.
"Witness also the dexterity attained by jugglers after a few
years' practice, enabling them to toss about and manipulate
half-a-dozen different objects while reading aloud from a book
or paper, or to throw a ball high above them whilst blindfolded,
and to so adjust the impulse and the distance which it shall
traverse that it shall fall into their outstretched hand. I doubt,
moreover, whether the whole creation of animals, living or extinct,
has ever produced such a marvel of semi-instinctive performance
as that offered by the musician who executes a rapid movement
on an instrument like the piano, where thousands of muscular
actions, each distinct, independent, co-ordinate, and purposeful,
take place within a minute ; and the marvel is multiplied ten-fold
when to this is superadded the process of reading and translating
each note coincidently. So again with the subtlety, neatness,
and delicacy of manipulation acquired in many trades and
industries, instances of which might be adduced by the hundred ;
but what I would rather lay stress on is the fact that equal
theme for astonishment may be found in coimtless acts of our
every-day life, complex movements which we perform almost
unconsciously (certainly without conscious thought), very little
to be distinguished in their results from what we call instinct,
yet all learnt and accumulated by obvious methods of attainment ;
such acts as running up stairs, balancing the body, the umbrella,
or the hat against a high wind, putting on a pair of gloves,
shortening our steps mechanically in crossing a road so that the
foot is exactly timed to reach the edge of the pavement, and
the numberless examples of instinctive memory and localization.
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A. WONDERFUL ANIMAL. 89
The last is seen no doubt in its highest development amongst
savages — it is said that the aboriginal inhabitants of the West
Indies, now nearly extinct, could foretell the advent of a hurricane
a week or more in advance, which the most delicate meteorological
instruments fail to do. One may point out here, as somewhat
remarkable, that although the principles of almost all man's great
mechanical inventions have been anticipated by the lower animals,
he does not seem to have copied directly from Nature in this
respect in any instance, but to have evolved his discoveries inde-
pendently. And although he does not possess the power of scent
of the chamois, the hearing of the bat, the sight of a hawk, the
muscular strength of the tiger, or speed of the cheetah, in the
aggregate the sum total of his senses and faculties far exceeds
that of any, whUe in endurance and adaptability he is second
to none — ^this wonderful creature, whom Bremser has declared to
occupy a sad middle state between the animal and the angel.
Take, for instance, his sense of sight. Very few creatures
can compare with us in acuteness or comprehensiveness of vision
— some few birds, perhaps, such as the hawk and the guU. The
compliment ** lynx-eyed" is a very doubtful one, since neither
the lynx nor any other cat is gifted with sight equal to that of
man. In fact, the excellence of this faculty is quite extraordinary
in comparison with its condition in the rest of the animal world ;
snakes see nothing distinctly at a distance equivalent to twice
their own length, while even the possessors of multiple eyes —
insects and spiders — cannot boast a power of perception even
relatively as good. A spider with its eight eyes may be observed
to feel along the threads of its web in order to discover the
precise whereabouts of a captured fly. It is very doubtful
whether any animal but man sees the stars.
And, speaking of seeing the stars, it is curious how little we
know what we do see. All our senses befool us to some extent,
but none so much as that of sight — seeing is not believing. How
big does the moon appear to us ? A thousand persons, of all
ages, were tested with this question, and invited to draw on a
black-board the image of the moon of the actual size which it
presented to the mind of each. The result was a series of circles
ranging in diameter from that of a shilling to that of a soup-
plate ; so great was the diversity that it was impossible to arrive
at any trustworthy average amongst them. In respect of the
moon, too, occurs the singular sense-deception that we see it
apparently larger on the horizon than when we view it directly
overhead. We know, of course, that it is the same body; but
VOL. VUI. — PABT V. 7
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90 A. STBADLIlfO — ANKITEBSABT ADDBE9S :
our reason revolts at the assertion that the image and present-
ment which fall upon the retina are of precisely the same
dimensions whether the satellite he at the zenith or upon the
horizon. Nevertheless, this may he demonstrated to be the case
by placing a disc of cardboard the size of a billing at the
extremity of a straight stick, forty inches long, at which
distance such a disc will exactly extinguish that of the moon,
whatever its situation may be. The explanation of the anomaly
lies in the circumstance that we can never get rid of the im-
pression that the vault of the heavens assumes the form of a
flattened dome, that the horizon is farther away from us than
the vertex, and that consequently a body ought to appear smaller
to us at the greater distance; we therefore intuitively magnify
the moon*s image in our receptivity to compensate for tte dis-
crepancy of its equality of diameter in both positions. In a
somewhat similar manner, the gas-lamps in the street, which we
know to be close at hand, convey when looming through a fog
an irresistible impression of distance to our easily-deluded ocular
appreciation. In fact, the eye can never be depended upon to
give a correct perception of distance unless there be something
to mark the interval; a light in the air may be an expiring
candle a few feet oft, or a planet at millions of miles. A curious
illusion of a small character affects myself in connection with
the constant use of spectacles. (If I quote myself and the
phenomena of my own life-history from time to time in the course
of the evening, please do not set it down to inordinate vanity on
my part, or misjudge me as offering myself as a remarkably fine
example of the Wondei-ful Animal we have under consideration.
I do so simply because I happen to be the specimen which comes
most immediately within the sphere of my personal observation.
If I were lecturing on cats or dogs or serpents, you would
naturally expect that I should select for illustration those in my
own collection as most familiar to me, and it is on precisely the
same principle that I allude to myself in the present instance.
However, other people wear spectacles, and may perhaps have
noticed a similar deception.) For me of course the world is
framed in a somewhat narrow oval; I don't employ the whole
capacity of my extent of vision, that being bounded by the rim
of my glasses. The result is that pictures of landscapes always
seem unnatural to me — they all have too much sky, more, that
is to say, than I am accustomed to see in proportion to the
amount of ground. This shows that it does not do to accept
everything as viewed through one's own spectacles.
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A WONDEBFUL AlQlfAL. 91
No other animal probably depends so much on the sense of sight
as we do, yet the eye is remarkably defective, not only in respect
of distance, but in its power of quantitative estimate. If we are
accustomed to take sugar in our tea or coffee, our sense of taste
will inform us at once whether our cup has been sweetened with
one, two, or three lumps. So, when the conductor of an omnibus
gives us change out of sixpence, we can guess pretty correctly
without looking whether he has made a mistake of a penny
(especially if it should be a penny short), simply by the weight
of the coppers. Yet it is exceedingly difficult to say whether a
room is lighted by one, two, or three candles, if the candles them-
selves be not seen ; moreover, the illumination of twenty candles
is scarcely to be differentiated from that of ten, when they are
hidden from view, and even the sudden addition of ten candles
to a like number already lighted fails to produce an impression
of the increase of more than two or three. It would be quite
possible to lower the lights in this room to one half of the volume
which they are now yielding without any perceptible alteration
to the majority of those present, provided the diminution were
effected gradually. Even the tactile perception is more delicate
and acute than this: in selecting one from a number of instru-
ments of the same shape but of different sizes (different in calibre,
that is to say), I find that my sense of touch is a much more
trustworthy guide than is the eye where the gradations are very
fine. The sight of savages, about which so much nonsense
has been talked, is by no means exceptionally acute, though
specialized in certain directions by habitude ; they may pick out,
for instance, a motionless animal which is invisible to the un-
practised eye, but my fellows in Nicaragua had the greatest
difficulty in seeing any distinction between an n and an m printed
in small type, and even between a full stop and a comma, things
that strike us like a blow when one is misplaced for the other.
A child's vision appears to be deficient in comprehension rather
than intensity, though whether this is due to immaturity of the
organs involved or to defective receptivity of the centrum I am
unable to say. I was much impressed with this fact on one
occasion some few years ago, in taking a child of five and his
nurse — specimens again from my own vivarium — ^to the Crystal
Palace. Neither of them had been there before; and when we
emerged from the Low Level Station into the grounds, the nurse,
a girl of eighteen or twenty, was rapt in amazement at the
panorama which suddenly burst upon her, the enormous gardens,
the fountains, the wide terraces, and, behind all, the huge building
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92 A. STBADLroO AKNIVEBSABT ADDEE88 :
and towers. The child, on the other hand, saw nothing and heeded
nothing but the flowers and shrubs in the immediate vicinity —
he was capable of perceiving all the rest when his attention was
especially directed to it, and it aroused equal wonder in him, but
he at once reverted to neighbouring objects when left to himself.
The first colour which a child recognizes is invariably red, and
children are singularly attracted by anything of a golden hue
or sheen; babies just able to crawl will stretch out their hands
towards gilt balls in the midst of other objects equally bright,
and will pick out gold coins from amongst silver or any others —
a predilection which certainly persists into later life with the
majority of our species. At the age of ten the colour of the eyes
is fixed; and it is said that blue-eyed people are never colour-
blind. We probably see more colours than the rest of the higher
animals ; at any rate, apes seem to be colour-blind.
That human sight is deteriorating, our children afford most
melancholy proof. I have been told on very competent authority
that the reason why the stereoscope has fallen so much into disuse
is because few people now can see with both eyes alike. Never-
theless, it is pleasant to know that total blindness is steadily
diminishing. In the year 1871, the proportion of blind folks per
million of the whole population of England and Wales was 951 ;
in 1881 it was 879 ; and ten years later still, it had fallen to 809.
This decrease is no doubt largely due to the improvement in
remedial appliances and operations which have been devised by
oculists in the last quarter of a century; I think those medical
men who are present will agree with me when I say that the
progress of ophthalmic surgery during recent years offers the most
satisfactory aspect of our profession. There is one little operation
known as iridectomy, the object of which is to restore the pupil
when it has been obliterated by inflammation, concerning which
it is said that it has actually exercised an appreciable effect on
the poor-rates of every civilized country in the world ! Young
and able-bodied people who had become blind from inflammation
of the iris were formerly regarded as incurably so, and had in
consequence to be maintained by the state, the parish, or charity
for the remainder of their natural lives, or had to take up occupa-
tions for which the power of sight can be dispensed with, such
as basket-making. Now, by a snip of the scissors the blessing
of sight can be restored to many, enabling them to set to work and
earn their bread. The number of the totally blind in England
and Wales was returned at the last general census, that of 1891,
at 23,467. Amongst these the male sex predominated greatly up
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A WONDERFUL AKIKAL. 93
to the age of 65, but blind old women far outnumbered the blind
old men. The occupation of the majority of these blind persons
was basket-making, but music was the vocation of many of them,
either teaching or actually performing. Six blind doctors appear
in the list, and two blind veterinary surgeons ; three blind dentists
are gruesomely suggestive of new horrors added to a terrible craft ;
and, most extraordinary of all, there are two sightless photo-
graphers. The blind pianoforte-tuners, who are very numerous,
appear to have been included in the census returns under the head
of musicians.
As an example of the wonderful perfection of functional speciali-
zation to which the eye can attain, I may state that it is credibly
affirmed that signalmen in their cabins on the railway are able
to detect and recognize the inspectors for whom they watch as
they pass in the trains at full speed. But, indeed, the most casual
phenomena of the vision are altogether marvellous when we think
of the tiny pinhole, the pupil, through which we look out and
survey the world, through which our sense not only embraces
many miles of landscape, but perceives such trifles as the minute
deflection of the globe of another person's eye in ** meeting
a glance."
It is very difficult to deceive the eye, though the eye may
deceive us ; of this striking instances might be given.
It is possible that sight is somewhat complementary to hearing,
as smell is to taste, for, when we are listening, we turn our eyes,
although the face is averted to bring the ear round. We also have
some power of hearing through the open mouth.
But hearing does not present so many curiosities as does the
sense of sight. Our external ears are not of much use; people
get on very well without them.
The dullest and most neglected sense is that of smell ; we prac-
tically make scarcely any use of it. It is the only sense that does
not sleep, and it is said to be more acute when we are asleep than
when we are awake, odours then being very distinctly perceived
by the olfactory nerves.
In no animal is the sense of taste so much developed by education
as it is in man. People experienced in tasting wine can recognize
different vintages without any hesitation. Many animals can taste
their food very little, if at all. Birds with their homy tongues,
and reptiles which swallow their prey whole, can have no palatal
refinement, and yet they are discriminative to a great extent.
The sense of taste is shared by the tongue with the rest of the
mouth, but the tongue is also a tactile organ. Mr. Herbert
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94 A. STEADLDTG ^AHVIYEBSAIIT ADDKBS8 :
Wailes, in his recent lecture on " Crystals and Precious Stones,"
told U3 how the tongue was applied to test diamonds. The way
in which the food is balanced by means of the muscles is very
wonderful, and so also is the way in which we detect a grain
of sand in the food and steady it against the teeth; while the
whistling of the chromatic scale by a boy is an achievement pro-
bably unsurpassed in the animal world. On the other hand, the
movement involved in putting out the tongue is probably the easiest
of all bodily actions.
"With regard to speech, we are told on the authority of Mr.
Edison that very few persons recognize their own voices, but
probably they would not recognize themselves if they could meet.
It is said that stammering is not known amongst savages, but is
a product of civilization. No savage makes the noise of clearing
the throat, and it is very doubtful whether a savage ever laughs
aloud. But savages soon learn to do so, as the wild dog learns
to bark on hearing the bark of the domestic dog. Gesture-language
is pretty much the same amongst savages as amongst the rest of
mankiud; although it may seem remarkable at first, it is descriptive
and imitative in its origin. Language will have to be modified
very much in that toothless future of which dentists give us the
prediction. Cooked food has probably very much to do with the
lo38 of teeth, but the great expanse of the brain may take up so
much of the skull that there is not sufficient space for powerful
muscles to work a heavy jaw.
The average weight of the brain of males is 49 J ounces; that
of females is said to be about 6 ounces less, which shows what
capital stuff it must be made of, the smaller quantity doing so
much. These are, of course, the absolute weights ; if we take the
relative weight to the weight of the body, we shall probably find
that the female brain is proportionately equal in weight to the
male brain. Some very clever and intelligent men had very large
brains. Thackeray's brain weighed 68i ounces ; a celebrated
French surgeon's 62^ ounces; Abercrombie's an ounce heavier;
and Cuvier's, the heaviest on record, 64 ounces. Napoleon's was
a very heavy brain. But there is no rule : the brain of some very
intelligent people is not much above the average; the brain of John
Stuart Mill was a very small one indeed. Only two animals in the
world have a brain heavier than that of man, the elephant and
the whale, both intensely stupid creatures; in fact, no animal comes
near to man in intellect in comparison with weight of brain.
Some of the giant brutes of bygone days were remarkably scanty
in this respect, some allied to the rhinoceros having smaller brains
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A WONBEEFUL AKIMAL. 95
than that of the cat. The hrain of some of the extinct reptiles
would scarcely fill a wine-glass. But the intelligence of an animal
generally hears some relation to the complexity, if not to the size,
of its hrain. There has heen an effort lately made to associate
hoth crime and genius with insanity, hut with regard to genius
I think it would be very remarkable if perversion of tissue
were correlated with the highest development of the function
thereof.
Turning from the consideration of the brain to that of the limbs,
it is scarcely necessary to say that the primary object of locomotion
is to enable the organism to seek food over a larger area than was
possible with a fixed position. It has been reserved for man alone
to differentiate his limbs and use his legs and feet, and not his arms
and hands, for locomotion, and in this respect he is higher in the
scale of creation, in his purely animal nature, than any of the
other animals. It is thought that the erect position preceded
the development of mind. The hand, also, plays an important
part in the superiority of man over the other animals.
Man the animal, irrespective of his mind, progresses ; the lower
animals do not progress ; but he, even in his animal characteristics
alone, is always going forward. We see this fact brought out in
nothing more clearly than in the way in which records are broken
in athletics and sports every year. Bicycling statistics prove this
as much as anything. But the limits of human performance are
very narrow without the aid of machinery, and are probably nearly
reached now. That we shall never fly is certain ; for it has been
mathematically calculated that our muscles can never be employed
to lift our weight from the ground.
I regret that I have not time enough to speak of the develop-
ment of races, but there is one point in connection with descent
which is sufficiently remarkable to notice. We find a great many
instances of survival and reversion, especially in watching the
habits of our children; all their games are mimic war, and they
like **bluggy** stories. There is also amongst us one direct graft
from barbarism, and that is the practice of smoking.
There are several other points involving curiosities of human
life-phenomena to which I had intended to allude, but I find that
I have miscalculated my time at the outset in dwelling on the
nerves of special sense. Now, is it allowable to speculate for a
few minutes, by way of conclusion, as to the future of this
wonderful animal?
That our race is no longer in the heyday of its youth, that
it is in fact long past its prime, admits of no dispute whatever.
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There are many points of positive evidence of this, too technically-
anatomical to be brought forward here ; but one may say briefly
that races present their signs of growth, maturity, senility, and
decay, just as do individuals. Indeed, an American statistician
has recently published a computation that, at the present ratio of
increase, the extreme limit of population of the globe will bo
reached in the year 2072 — no more than 178 years hence — by
which time the earth's inhabitants will number 5994 millions,
more than which it will not hold or support. I believe that the
average proportion, taking the world over, so far as can be ascer-
tained, is seventeen births for sixteen deaths, but this proportion
varies greatly in different lands ; in France, for instance, according
to the census recently issued, there were in 1892 more than 20,000
deaths in excess of the number of births. It is extremely unlikely,
however, that man will persist to the limits of possible population
of the earth — which is not by any means the same thing as saying
that he will become extinct before the suggested 178 years have
elapsed, but rather the reverse, as no doubt unknown and at
present nnknowable factors of determination will arise in the
meantime. We must not forget that there are tracts of land,
even in Canada and the United States, Alaska and Labrador, which
are less known at this period than equal areas in the moon ; and
that the future colonization of air and water may not be altogether
chimerical. We must remember, too, in connection with this part
of the question, that man, though encompassed by an infinitely
greater variety and complexity of conditions than any other
animal, has infinitely greater control over those conditions, by his
employment of engines, his choice of food and clothing, and other
modifications of his environment at will. As to his antiquity, we
have but uncertain data, so far as years are concerned. We know
of course that he is a very baby amongst the Mammalia, quite
their latest product, just as the serpent is amongst reptiles ; that
in fact he did not appear until long after the wane of mammalian
life had set in ; and that he can be but a very transient phenomenon
on the face of the globe, even though his existence be reckoned by
thousands of centuries, when we compare him with such creat'iros
as the catfish of the Missouri, which has persisted in its present
form unchanged since the SUurian epoch. Sir Charles Lyell predi-
cates the presence of man in the valley of the Mississippi for at
least 100,000 years, and the traces upon which this estimate is
founded would demand a period quite three times as long to
admit of his perfect evolution and differentiation into races. But
extinction is vastly quicker in its operation in all cases than
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A WONDEBFITL ANIMAL. 97
evolution, and it is certain that we shall not see another 300,000
years, or anything like it.
The fatal disease to which we shall owe our extermination is
civilization — that civilization which is as recent a feature in our
racial history as any event of yesterday in the lifetime of the
individual ; and by civilization I do not mean the missionary
process of clapping a naked savage into a top hat and frock coat
and making him a member of a County Council — imposed civiliza-
tion of that sort kills at once, witness the sudden extinction of
the aboriginal Tasmanians. It is that gradual and self-evolved
civilization, which comes inevitably to every nation sooner or later,
and which is no less surely destructive, though immeasurably slower
than the other. The Apahuai Indians, with whom I sojourned
in Central America, offer an excellent illustration of this con-
temporaneously. Their tribes, nomadic by nature and habit from
time immemorial, are now just beginning to split up into sections,
whereof one goes on wandering through the forests and prairies,
while the other settles down into pueblos or villages and evinces
a tendency to form agricultural communities ; and every year these
communities receive an accession from the nomads— the first step
on the downward path ! And this deadly symptom, civilization,
is of course the direct product and outcome of man's fatal ad-
vantage, his aggrandization of brain — ^that which has made him
is wreaking his undoing. It is curious to note the frequency with
which this fatality of advantage occurs in the animal world. The
development of the hood of the cobra must at the outset have been
of use to it in the struggle for existence, yet its weight and
expanse now prove often a positive bane, and cause it to fall a
prey to creatures from which it might otherwise escape ; and
the enormous dimensions to which the tusks of some of the
old mammoths attained must certainly have conduced ultimately
to their extinction. The sabre-toothed tiger, again, the most
specialized carnivore that ever existed, could not at last close its
mouth on the teeth to which it owed its initial superiority over
the rest of its kind. So, too, one might adduce as parallel instances
the brilliancy of certain birds, the plumes of the bird of paradise,
the neck of the giraffe, and many other examples of the disad-
vantageous exaggeration of a development originally and within
moderate limits of the greatest utUity to the possessor. And so
it will be with that awful and ever-increasing high pressure and
tension under which we live, owing to the ceaseless and insatiable
goading of this hypertrophied brain of ours. That the pace at
which we now live kills is simply a truism and requires no
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98 A. STEAPLDrO AJXIflYEBSABY ADDRESS :
demonstratioD ; but perhaps no more conclusive proof of the inci'ease
of pressure could be given than the fact that it is not so very long
ago that watches were made with the hour hand only ; old writings
do not speak of minutes — ^there was no 9.47 train to catch then, or
anything of that sort — ^they allude comfortably to noon, midnight,
and so on as a rule. Minor divisions of time, in relation to daily
life, are sequent upon the requirements of this terrible civilization.
And look at the awful results to the race which spring from the
education that it entails. Look at our children, cramped in body
and mind through the best years of their existence — what a
lamentable contrast is theirs to the grand young savages brought
up in the school of Nature ! Children — there are no children
nowadays ; the young playful human animal is a thing of the past ;
they are like the kangaroos which have been kept in captivity
generation after generation — they are beginning to walk, not hop
or jump — ^the saddest spectacle to my mind which civilization
affords. Read what our learned and valued member, Dr. Shelly,
said on this head in his lecture to the National Health Society last
week. There is no need to multiply instances ; the demand for
rational dress shows that the pinch on vitality is making itself felt,
and there is no clearer evidence of our decay than the constant and
increasing quest of peptomised and other foods which shall lighten
the labour of digestion. The very existence of a medical profession
shows that there must be something wrong — a race of undeteriorated
animals would not want doctors. And that leads me to remark
that doctors are after all the greatest and chiefest enemies of the
human race. It is not too much to say that nine-tenths of
the effort of medical science is directed towards the extinction
of the race, by preservation of the unfit. It is a law of nature
that, under ordinary conditions, not one per cent, of the animals
of any species bom shall survive— not one in a thousand, not one
in ten thousand of some species. Mysterious as it seems. Nature
is always taking repressive measures to keep the pot from boiling
over, to neutralize the exuberance of vitality ; if it were not so,
the world would not support any single species for a single year.
Man in a state of nature offers no exception to this rule, and even
under civilization it is said that two-thirds of the race perish in
infancy ; but this is not enough for its conservation. Now, medical
science, and especially sanitary science, prevents that beneficial
waste of immature and weakly life in explicit defiance of this
law ; and in using the word ** beneficial " I of course adopt the
seeming paradox — ^no paradox at all, however — that that which
is beneficial to the individual is commonly, though not necessarily
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
A WO^CDSBFUL ANIMAL. 99
or invariably, prejudicial to the race, and vice vend. The passive
survival of the fittest can only be compassed by the destruction
of the less fit by independent forces ; though I do not suppose
that any new Herod is likely to arise, to prescribe euthanasia or
compulsory infanticide in lieu of our perniciously-preservative
vaccination.
Then, again, man has scarcely any enemies amongst other
animals — ^the tiger, the shark, and the venomous serpent are all
inconsiderable; and although it may seem like another paradox
to speak of this as an element of disfavour in his racial prospects,
yet it is a fact that the presence of enemies, beasts of prey and
such like, within certain limits, does conduce to the well-being of
a race, by weeding out the weaklings and superfluous young,
keeping up the food-supply, and stimulating speed, alertness, and
other qualities serviceable in the battle of life among the rest.
Man, moreover, is unquestionably the terminal twig of his branch.
He will leave no descendants, and there is no ancestral ape-like
form from which more will be evolved. In a very short time man
will be gone — New Guinea and Central Africa are the last homes
of the savage in his furious state, uninfluenced by contact with
white civilization; and we, the posterity of such, already hope-
lessly on the road to extermination, will be all that are left. And
what shall we leave behind us ? Practically nothing. It is very
humiliating to think of, but if a future race of intelligent beings
should inhabit the earth, they will find the only evidence of
that development of brain and its results, which we consider so
wonderful as to ascribe it peculiarly God -gifted to ourselves, in the
vestiges of a mere constructive power, exactly comparable in kind
or degree to that of the bee, the nest-building bird, or the beaver.
In another hundred thousand years there will probably be more
evidence of the past existence of the ichthyosaurus than of that
of man.
What will the last man be like ? It is possible to predict, with
a tolerable approach to ceitainty. A creature with a big head, big
hands, and shrunken legs; with a thin wesik jaw and thickened
upper lip ; bald, purblind, and with few or no teeth ; a creature
with swollen projecting ribs, flat hips, and smaU ill-developed feet ;
deficient in the power of locomotion, yet still procuring food and
preserving vitality by his marvellous mastery over the forces of
nature through the resourcefulness of science. But the stage will
be reached at length when the enfeebled stomach can no longer
minister to the unbounded exigency of the horrible, parasitic, all-
devouring demon of a brain; the secretion of intellect will fail
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
100 ▲. STRADLDTO AmTVEMSAXI ABDB£BS.
from inanition; and man most snccnmb, wholesale and rapidly,
in the precise order and precedence of his boasted civilization.
Science, which has prolonged his existence far and remarkably
beyond the span of any other creatnre, can do no more for him ;
science will speak the last word uttered upon earth, and that
word will be one of sheer negation and despair. Many centuries,
however, have yet to elapse before that word shall be spoken, and
it may be that man is destined to spend the declining years of his
racial career under happier physical conditions than those which
have hitherto obtained. Already signs are apparent of what is
probably an impending universal migration towards those regions
where, and where only, the delight and majesty of life can be
fully developed and appreciated, the tropics. Probably the same
thought has occurred to everyone who has lived in those regions
which was expressed by the late H. W. Bates, though it may not
be given to all to clothe it with such grace of diction as he
does when he says that *^ although humanity can reach an
advanced degree of culture in high latitudes by battling with
the inclemencies of Nature, it is under the equator alone that the
race of the future will attain to complete fruition of man's glorious
and beautiful heritage, the earth.''
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XIII.
THE RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF HARD AND SOFT WATER,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SUPPLY OF WATFORD.
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
Mead at Watford, 29th January, 1895.
The question of the relative advantages of hard and soft water
is a very wide one. Considered in an economic light it cannot be
denied that the advantages are decidedly in favour of soft water ;
considered from a sanitary point of view it must first be resolved
into two distinct questions, — the one as to the external application
of water (for ablution) ; the other as to its internal use (for
imbibition). That soft water has great sanitary advantages over
hard water in our ablutions is no more likely to be disputed than
that it is decidedly more economical in domestic use, — for weishing
ourselves as well as for washing our clothes and cooking our food,
— and the only sanitary question which is really open to debate is
whether soft water or hard water is best for us to drink. But this
should not be the only point discussed, for the amount of water
which we drink is but a very small portion of that which we use
in other ways. It is therefore to the purpose to show that if hard
water and soft water were equally beneficial in this respect, the
advantages on the whole would be greatly in favour of soft water ;
and of this I think there cannot be the slightest doubt.
The hardness of water may be expressed in two different ways,
in parts per 100,000 by weight, and in grains per gallon. In
general analyses of water the former scale is usually adopted, for
the sake of uniformity, the amount of organic and mineral in-
gredients in water being most clearly and advantageously expressed
on this scale ; but the latter, which is known as Clark's scale, is
more familiar to us, and I will here adopt it. A grain of carbonate
of lime being the 1-70, 000 th part by weight of a gallon of water,
parts per 100,000 can be converted into grains per gallon by
multiplying by seven and dividing by ten, and vice versd.
The water with which Watford is supplied derives its hardness
mainly from the presence of bicarbonate of lime ; not from that of
sulphates or chlorides which are much more difficult to deal with.
It is usually about 20 degrees of hardness, about 16° of which
are temporary, that is can be removed by boiling, and 4° are
permanent, that is cannot be so removed. The mean of two
analyses of water from the weU at the Watford Waterworks made
in 1870 and 1873 for the Rivers Pollution Commission, gave 20°*0,
16°-3 being temporary and 3°'7 being permanent. Several other
analyses of water from wells in the neighbourhood of Watford,
made about the same time (1870 to 1873), gave from 18®
to 22° ; and the mean of 16 analyses of water from wells and
springs in Hertfordshire, made from 1868 to 1874, gave a total
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
102 J. Hopsnrsoir — belatite ADTAirrAGSS
hardness of 19®*2, 15°-6 being temporary and 3° -6 being permanent.
(See Table I, p. 113.) The hardness of the water supplied to
London throughout the year 1873, by the seven Companies drawing
a portion or the whole of their supply from rivers, averaged nearly
15*^. In the year 1892 it averaged 15°-3, ranging from 13° in the
autumn to 18° in the winter. (See Table II, p. 114.) The
slightly-increased hardness of the London water in recent years
is due to the supply derived from deep wells in the Chalk having
increased to a greater proportionate extent than that derived from
rivers. There is no reason to believe that the degree of hardness
of the Watford water, or the proportion of temporary and permanent
hardness, has materially altered since the analyses were made for
the Kivers Pollution Commission, and we may Eiccept it as a fact
that the Watford water is about 5° harder than the London water.
This difference is due to the greater part of the London water being
derived from rivers, while the whole of the Watford water comes
from the Chalk. In the classification of hardness the water
supplied to Watford would be considered to be between ** hard "
and ** very hard," and that supplied to London between "mode-
rately hard " and ** hard," and it is important to bear this
distinction in mind, for, whatever objection may be urged against
the London water on account of its hardness, applies with greater
force to the Watford water.
Hard water, as already stated, may be partially softened by
boiling, and is so softened in steam-boilers and to a less extent
in our kitchen boilers, to their great detriment and that of any
iron pipes through which the water flows, for a deposit called
** scale" or "fur" is formed on the iron, uniting with it and
caking over it. This, being a bad conductor of heat, renders an
increased consumption of fuel necessary to raise the temperature
of the water in the boiler; the "scale" has occasionally to be
removed at considerable expense ; and as it cannot be chipped off
without bringing with it some of the iron, boilers wear out much
faster when supplied with hard water than they do with a soft-
water supply. The "scale" also gradually chokes up the iron
pipes thix)ugh which the water flows, sometimes with disastrous
results. The water must boil for at least half-an-hour to be
materially softened. The so-called bicarbonate of lime (calcium-
bicarbonate) is then decomposed, half of its carbonic acid (carbon-
dioxide) being driven off as gas, leaving it a monocarbonate
(calcium-carbonate), which falls to the bottom of the water as a
fine powder, and cakes on the iron. There can be no question,
therefore, as to the great economical advantage of soft water over
hard water for any purpose for which it has to be boiled.
The difference between hard water and soft water is most
pertinently perceived by us in washing. Soap, in hard water,
does not at first cleanse ; some of it must be wasted in decomposing
the bicarbonate of lime in the water before it can act as a deter-
gent ; in fact, the water must first be softened to a considerable
extent at the expense of the soap. In soft water there is no such
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OP HABD AND SOFT WATKE. 103
waste. In washing there is, therefore, a very decided economical
advantage in using soft water.
But this is by no means the only advantage. However much
soap we may use with hard water, the pores of the skin cannot be
thoroughly cleansed and thus left open as they are with soft
water. The lather which is obtained with either, after much
waste of soap in hard water, with no such waste in soft water,
should be removed from the skin in order to leave the cuticle in a
healthy state. Rinsing with soft water at once removes it and
leaves the skin soft and with open pores, in the most healthy state
possible ; rinsing with hard water clogs the pores of the skin with
insoluble, greasy, curdy matter, the combination of the lime in the
water with the fatty acids in the soap, and leaves the skin in an
unhealthy and uncomfortable state. Moreover, to habitually wash
the face with hard water ruins the complexion, and the excessive
use of soap which hard water renders necessary is also bad for it,
facts of which most ladies are probably well aware. In our
personal ablutions soft water has, therefore, a sanitary and aesthetic
as well as an economical advantage over hard water.
In washing clothes with hard water it is necessary to soften the
water before the soap can have the requisite detergent effect.
Soap is too expensive to be used as the softening agent in this
operation. Carbonate of soda (the so-called ** washing soda")
answers the purpose well, and is not only much less expensive
than soap, but a smaller quantity is required to produce the same
effect. It is therefore generally used. Its action is to combine
with a portion of the carbonic acid gas in the Soluble bicarbonate
of lime, to the presence of which the hardness of the water is due,
converting this bicarbonate of lime into the insoluble monocarbonate
of lime, and also producing a bicarbonate of soda, which remains
in solution, adding to the detergent effect of the soltened water.
This action may be thus expressed : — calcium- bicarbonate -\-
sodium- carbonate « calcium-carbonate + sodium-bicarbonate. In
using soft water for washing clothes, not only is the expense of the
carbonate of soda saved, but the wear and tear on the linen is also
greatly reduced.
Soft water is far more economical than hard water in cooking
our food. There is considerable waste with hard water, for not
only is it longer in producing the required effect, whether upon
meat or vegetables, but the calcareous hardening matter damages
the quality of the food. The saving effected in making tea with
soft water is almost too well known to require mentioning.
The great economical advantage of soft water over hard water
is not, it must be admitted, a question open to dispute.
The amount of soap which water can destroy is the test of its
degree of hardness, which is measured by shaking up a standard
soap-solution in a given quantity of water. The soap-solution is
added to the water until on shaking it a permanent lather (one
which will remain for about five minutes) is obtained. Thus
a water is said to possess one degree of hardness when its
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
104 J. H0PKIN80K — EELATIVE ADYANTjLGES
soap-destroying power is equal to that exerted by one grain of
carbonate of lime (existing as bicarbonate) in one imperial gallon
of water (weighing 70,000 grains).
It is well known that lime is made by driving off from chalk,
by means of heat, the carbonic acid which it contains. Chalk, or
calcium-carbonate, is thus converted into lime, or calcium- oxide,
and carbonic acid gas, or carbon-dioxide, which escapes into the
air. The lime has then a great affinity for its former partner,
carbonic acid gas, and it is in virtue of this affinity that slaked
lime softens water which is hai-d owing to the presence of
bicarbonate of lime, or calcium-bicarbonate, for it combines with
half its carbonic acid gas, thus forming chalk, and by this
deprivation the rest of the bicarbonate is also left as chalk. The
bicarbonate is soluble in water, but the carbonate (chalk) is not,
or is only so to a very slight extent ; and therefore the chalk thus
formed is deposited as a fine powder, or may be removed from the
water by filtration, thus rendering it soft.
The hardening of water by bicarbonate of lime and its softening
by lime may be thus expressed quantitatively. A gallon of rain-
water charged with 7 grains of carbonic acid gas, which it may
take up from the air or from decaying vegetable matter, passing
through chalk, will carry with it in solution about 17i grains
of the chalk, of which 16 grains will be in chemical combination
with the carbonic acid gas, forming 23 grains of bicarbonate of
lime, and the water will be said to be of 1 7i degrees of hardness.
If now 9 grains of lime be added, they will combine with the 23
grains of bicarbonate of lime and form 32 grains of chalk, for
7 grains of carbonic acid gas will have abandoned the bicarbonate
of lime, and have formed, with the 9 grains of liiue, 16 grains
of chalk. The whole of these 32 grains of chalk can now be
removed from the water by settlement or filtration, leaving it with
only a grain and a half of chalk dissolved in it, and thus reducing
it from 17i° of hardness to U°.
This is the reaction which takes place in the now well-known
and extensively- adopted method of softening water called Clark^s
process, though it is by no means a complete explanation of the
process. For instance, in practice the lime is added in the form
of lime-water in the proportion of about one gallon of lime-water
to every ten gallons of hard water to be softened. In Clark's
original process, as adopted at the Colne Valley Waterworks, the
chalk is allowed to subside to the bottom of a settling- tank ;
in the modification of it known as the Porter-Clark process, as
adopted at the Southampton Waterworks (and many oliiers), it is
mechanically filtered away.
We cannot boil hard water, wash in it, wash our clothes in it,
or cook our food in it, without softening it, and at considerable
expense ; we boil it in a closed boiler, such as is used for heating
water for baths, at the risk of an explosion from a choked-up
pipe ; we cannot effectually cleanse our skin with it ; and our
clothes are sometimes rather washed away than cleansed by its use.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF HABD AKD SOFT WATER. 105
For every purpose but drinking, washing our streets and flushing
our drains, and perhaps for a few manufacturing processes, such as
paper-making and brewing pale ale, hard water must be softened,
and we are therefore naturally led to consider in what way it can
be most economically softened.
The Kivers Pollution Commission of 1868 stated the relative
cost of softening water by lime, soda, and soap, to be as follows : —
£ 3, d,
1 cwt. of quick-lime . . . « ,008
4icwt. of carbonate of soda at 128. 2d. • 2 17 9
20t cwt. of hard yeUow soap at £2 6*. 6d. , 47 1 8
The cost of the coal required to soften the same quantity of water
by boiling in an ordinary kitchen boiler they estimated to be at the
rate of 7*. 6d. for every 9*. expended in soap, or £39 4«. Sd. (See
* Keport of the Commission,' pp. 204, 205.)
These figures do not, however, quite tally with some other
statements in the Commissioners' Eeport, and the cost of coal,
soda, and soap is now much less than it was at the time this
enquiry was being made. A fairer estimate, for the present time,
of the quantities and cost of these different materials required to
reduce 100,000 gallons of water from 20° of hardness to 6°, or by
14°, which is the extent of softening which would probably be
deemed adequate for the Watford water, would be as follows : —
li cwt. of quick-lime at Sd. per cwt. •
5 cwt. of carbonate of soda at 3*. Sd, per cwt.
2li cwt. of soap at 21*. per cwt. •
25 tons of coal at 16«. per ton
Even at these much-reduced prices of soda, soap, and coal (the
Commissioners estimated the cost of coal at Is. 6d. per cwt. or 30«.
per ton), it will be seen that the cost of softening water by car-
bonate of soda is 18 times that by lime, that the cost of softening
it by boiling is 400 times that by lime, and that the cost of
softening it by soap is 450 times that by lime.
Lime, therefore, completely puts out of court the other three
agents by which water is usually softened.
There is yet another, and a very effectual, method of softening
water to be mentioned, and that is by distillation, but this is a very
expensive process, distilled water requiring for its production the
consumption of about one-tenth its weight of coal. This is equiva-
lent to the consumption of a pound of coal for every gallon of
softened water. Distilled water is the softest that can be obtained,
and if aerated is perfectly wholesome and pleasant to the taste.
While soft water is undoubtedly the best for every purpose we
have yet considered, whether soft water or hard water is best for
drinking is not easily determined. Statistics of the death-rate in
towns have frequently been brought forward as bearing upon this
point, and the result is almost invariably that the rate is a little
£
s.
d.
1
18
4
22
11
6
20
VOL. Vni.— PART V.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
1.06 J. HOPxnrsoN — belatite adtaktages
higher in towns supplied with soft water than it is in towns
supplied with hard water. For instance, in his evidence before
the recent Royal Commission on the Metropolitan Water Supply,
Mr. Thomas Hawksley put in a table showing a death-rate for the
ten years 1882-91 nearly 3 °/q higher in thirteen towns supplied
with soft water than in fifteen towns supplied with hard water;
but no one would consider that the death-rate of Preston (27*3 per
1000) and of Manchester (27*2) is higher than that of Derby (17*9)
and of Brighton (17*7) because the former towns are supplied with
soft water and the latter with hurd water. On the other hand,
Newcastle, with a death-rate of 24-1 per 1000, is supplied with
hard water; Bradford, with a death-rate of only 19*5, with soft
water. It is just as reasonable to infer that the higher death-rate
of Newcastle is due to the hard water with which it is supplied.
(See Table III, p. 114.) Again, in the 'Sixth Report of the
Rivers Pollution Commission' (pp. 196-199) are tables which show
that the average death-rate in a number of seaport towns and
inland non-manufacturing towns supplied with moderately hard
water is higher than it is in such towns supplied with either hard
water or soft water. Surely this is a reductio ad ahsurdum^ for if
the death-rate in these towns depends upon the water with which
they are supplied, we should drink either very soft or very hard
water, and carefully avoid a water which is only moderately hard !
It is possible that there may be an indirect connection between
the death-rate of a town and its water-supply in this way. Other
things being equal, the healthiest towns will be those which are
situated on permeable formations, such as Watford and St. Albans,
owing to the dry subsoil and good drainage resulting from their
location. Not only is the ground drier on such formations than it
is on impermeable formations, but the air is also, which is of even
more importance for health, for it tends to a comparative absence
of fogs, and therefore to a clearer and more healthy atmosphere.
But it is just such towns which are supplied with hard water, for
it is accessible underground, and if obtained from neighbouring
rivers it is almost equally hard, for they, on such formations,
are chiefly fed from springs. Towns on impervious formations
must get their water from rivers near, and they are fed from
surface-waters which usually are soft; or they must procure it
from a long distance, and in that case the water is always soft,
for no town has ever yet sought or obtained a hard-water supply
from a long distance. A soft- water supply, again, encourages
manufactures by which the air is polluted.
Experiments have recently been made which tend to prove that
the death-rate in our towns is directly dependent upon the degree
of purity of the air ; that the purity of the air and the amount
of light are directly interdependent; and that by merely deter-
mining the amount of sulphur-compounds in the air we may form
a very good idea of its purity, of the amount of light which passes
through it, and of the healthiness of a town or of different parts
of a large city, such as London or Manchester. These and other
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF HABB AHB SOFT WATSB. 107
considerations seem to show that it is air, not water, which mainly
determines the death rate of a town ; that so long as a water suffi-
ciently tree from organic impurities is provided, it makes very little
difference whether the water he hard or soft. (See * Report Brit.
Assoc, for 1894,' p. 37.)
It is generally admitted that when a change has heen made in
any town from a hard-water to a soft-water supply, heneficial
results have followed, and it has heen argued that this proves that
soft water is the most wholesome ; but this does not necessarily follow.
In the first place the soft water is usually more plentiful, and
purer irrespective of hardness, than the water previously supplied,
the change not as a rule being made merely to obtain soft water, but
owing also to the scarcity or contamination of the old supply ; and
in the second place with an improved or increased supply of water
other sanitary improvements have usually been introduced. One
of these is the substitution of a constant for an intermittent
supply of water, a change which is always conducive to health,
.and which, if properly carried out, by lessening the waste, reduces
the consumption. To be wasteful with almost anything is bad for
our health as well as for our morals ; and there can be no doubt but
that a plentiful and constant supply of water, whether hard or
soft, with provisions for using it to the best advantage generally
understood and appreciated, largely conduces to health of body and
morality of mind.
The general opinion of experts appears to be in favour of soft
water for drinking purposes. Of thirty witnesses who gave
evidence before the Duke of Richmond's Commission on Water
Supply, twenty-eight expressed an opinion in favour of soft water,
some of them very strongly, one was decidedly in favour of hard
water, and one expressed a qualified opinion in favour of it. The
question was also fully discussed before the Rivers Pollution
Commission, and the Commissioners state that the general result
of the attention given to it by the highest medical and chemical
authorities is that ** whilst, on the one hand, opinions have
differed considerably as to the wholesomeness of hard water, on
the other there has been, and now is, an almost complete unanimity
as to the wholesomeness of soft water." (* Report,' p. 184.) A
still more decided opinion in favour of soft water was expressed
by the Metropolitan Sanitary Commission of 1850. **0n the
whole," the Commissioners say, ** we cannot doubt that the
presence of lime and other mineral matter deteriorates the
wholesomeness and value of water for the purposes of drinking."
(* Report of the General Board of Health on the Water Supply
of the Metropolis,' pp. 59, 60.)
The statement of the Duke of Richmond's Commission, that there
is *' a great want of exact evidence on the subject of the dietetic
value of soft and hard waters," is still true ; we know very little
of their physiological action upon the human system. Even so
recently as the year 1892, Mr. Hawksley, who appears to be
(dmost alone in his advocacy of hard water, in his evidence before
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
108 J. HOPKDTSOir — ^BELATIYE ABTAITTAOES
the Royal Commission on the Water Supply of the Metropolis, said
that the hard-water towns showing a lower death-rate than that
of the soft- water towns ** is very much in accordance with reason ;
hecause hard water contains a certain quantity of lime, and lime
is very heneficial to the human system, hoth as an ant-acid and
as forming the base of aU our hones." ('Minutes of Evidence,'
p. 263.)
We all know the value of bicarbonate of soda as an ant-acid, but
I think we should with as much reason put bicarbonate of lime
into our teapot to soften the water as we shoidd take it medicinally
to correct acidity ; and it is well known that it is phosphate of
lime, and not carbonate or bicarbonate, that enters largely into the
composition of our bones.
The fallacy of such reasoning as Mr. Hawksley's has been shown,
moreover, long ago. The Right Hon. Lyon Playfair (now Lord
Playfair), when giving evidence before the Duke of Richmond's
Commission, was asked: '^Do not some medical men consider
that the presence of carbonate of lime in drinking-water is rather
desirable than otherwise for health ?" And he replied : ** I have
seen evidence given in cases of water-supply, not only that it was
desirable for health, but that it was absolutely necessary for the
formation of the bones. But that showed a lamentable want of
chemical knowledge, because the lime required in food does not
come from the water, but from the solid articles of food taken, and
I do not think that the lime taken in water has any influence on
the processes of bodily nutrition." This opinion he supported by
referring to the men of Westmoreland and Cumberland, and of the
Highlands of Scotland, who drink soft water from the hills. '* Our
Highlanders," he said, ** are not generally supposed to be deficient
in bone or muscle." Such a fact as this, which is incontestable,
is worth much theory, even though it might be suggested that the
Highlanders sometimes pollute the pure water from their hills
with whisky !
Hard water has been credited with causing rheumatism, calculus,
and dyspepsia. Calculous complaints have certainly been traced
to its use, but it appears that it is water rendered hard by the
presence of sulphates of lime and magnesia, rather than carbonates,
which has been found to have caused such diseases. The Metro-
politan Sanitary Commission of 1850 investigated this question, and
came to the conclusion that although ** stone " was more often
caused by errors in solid than in liquid diet, it was ** undoubted
that the number of calculous complaints in the hospitals, as at
Paisley, has greatly diminished, and that in the same ratio as the
consumption of soft water has increased. At Bolton, also," the
Commissioners add, **the most experienced practitionere inde-
pendently attest the fact of the diminution of calculous complaints
since soft water was introduced." (* Report,* p. 57.) Evidence jn
the same direction has been furnished by the introduction of a
soft-water supply to Glasgow, and the following important state-*
ment as to the Gorbals soft water has been made by Dr. Leach,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF HABD AND SOFT WATEB. 109
of Glasgow : " The comparative value of the new soft supply over
the old hard supply has been a matter of discussion at the Glasgow
Medical Society, of which I was President for two years. It was
the unanimous opinion of the medical profession that great benefits
of a sanitary kind had followed in the substitution of the soft
water on the principle of constant supply. It has been observed
that since this change urinary diseases have become less frequent,
especially those attended by the deposition of gravel. So far
as [my] experience has gone, my own opinion is that dyspeptic
complaints have diminished in number.*' The Medical Society
also attributed diminution in the number of fever cases and
comparative immunity from cholera, in the one district of Glasgow
which was then supplied with soft water, to the same cause — the
substitution of a soft-water for a hard-water supply. This was
before the introduction of the Loch Katrine water to the whole of
Glasgow. (See the above * Report,' p. 55.)
To quote another instance. The hard water formerly supplied to
Liverpool has been credited with having the tendency to produce
visceral obstructions; and Dr. Sutherland, a physician of that
city, found that such complaints vanished on his patients leaving
Liverpool, and reappeared immediately on their returning to it, but
the water which did the mischief there was a hard selenitic water
from the New Red Sandstone.
"While the presence of bicarbonate of lime in water cannot,
I think, be proved to be a cause of such complaints as these,
dyspepsia can undoubtedly be traced to it, and I know persons who
cannot drink the hard water supplied to Watford without it having
a bad effect upon their digestive organs. It is my own impression
that, although I do not suffer in this way from drinking the hard
chalk water of St. Albans, some of the beneficial effects which I
and others experience from a visit to a mountainous country such
£18 North Wales, are due to our drinking the soft water from the
hills, which I do largely and with much greater relish than the
hard water to which 1 am accustomed. We should not, however,
be too ready to rely upon our own tastes and feelings ; we are very
much the creatures of prejudice as weU as of habit. The lower
animals are less so, and we cannot credit them with having un-
justifiable prejudices with regard to the water they drink. It is
well known that hard water is injurious to horses, making their
coats rough and rendering them liable to gripes, and they seem to
know it as well as we do, for they will not drink it if they can get
soft water. Dogs, also, will rather drink rain-water from a rut in
the road, even if slightly muddy, than the clearest hard water
which may be provided for them ; at least, this is a trait of my
own dog, and I have noticed it in others, I have been informed
that the same is the case with birds, and that fancy pigeons should
always have soft water provided for them.
This part of my subject has already extended to too great a
length, and I will only add, in view of the possible objection
that I have not been quoting recent authorities, that the view
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
110 J. HOFKIKSOH — ^RELATIYX ADVAHTAOES
maintained more than a quarter of a century ago by Lord Playfair
and other authorities, thiat water of the same degree of hardness
88 that of Watford (about 20*^) is too hard for drmking purposes,
has much more recently been expressed by the following foreign
authorities : — Fischer, who places the limit of hardness of a water
suitable for drinking at 12 degrees; Reichardt, who places it at
12^ degrees; and Wibel, and Eubel and Tiemann, who place it
at from 12i to 14 degrees. I have altered their expression, which
is in parts per 100,000, to grains per gallon, (See Prof. W. R-
Kichols' ' Water Supply,' New York, 1883.)
Although it may not admit of proof, in the present state of our
knowledge, that water of 20 degrees of hardness due to the presence
of bicarbonate of lime, as supplied to Watford, is unsuitable for
dietetic purposes, that such water is so is the opinion of the highest
medical and chemical authorities in this country and abroad, and it
is an undoubted fact, uniyersally admitted, that it is much too hard
for all other domestic purposes, both on economical and sanitary
grounds. The real question at issue, therefore, seems to be whether
it is worth while to go to the expense of softening the Watford
water. Before this question can be answered it is necessary to
consider what the expense of softening it would probably be. The
lime -process is the only one which is practically available for
this purpose, whether the original Clark process, the Porter-Clark,
or any other modification, need not here be considered.
The expense of this process, and the suitability for any particular
place of one or other modification of it, depend upon various cir-
cumstances — the cost of lime, labour, machinery, site, etc., and,
perhaps chiefly, upon the hardness of the water to be softened and
the degree to which this is required to be done. At' the Otter-
bourne Waterworks at Southampton the expense of the process
employed is under a farthing — really about one-fifth of a penny —
per thousand gallons, with a farthing per thousand gallons for
interest and depreciation of plant. The water is there reduced
from 18 to 6 degrees of hardness. At Henley-on-Thames, with
water oi 2H degrees of hardness, the cost of softening is one-third
of a penny per thousand gallons; and at Wellingborough, with
water of 37 degrees of hardness, the cost of softening is four-fifths
of a penny per thousand gallons, but this hardness is exceptional.
The Porter-Clark process is the one employed at these places, the
water after its admixture with lime-water being mechanically
filtered through cloth, instead of being run into settling-tanks, as
in the original Clark process employed at the Colne Valley Water-
works, where the cost is about the same as at the Southampton
Waterworks. It has been calculated that if settling-tanks had
been constructed at Southampton, the first cost of the plant would
have been £3,000 more than it was with mechanical filters, ex-
clusive of the cost of the extra land required for tanks. Against
this, however, must be placed the increased cost of working witii the
filters. The cost of these processes is therefore much about the same,
but at the Watford Waterworks the Porter-Clark process would
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF HABD AND SOFT WATEB. 11 f
Jnrobably have to be employed owing to the small extent of space
available, unless the waterworks were removed from their present
situation.
We may fairly presume that in such a town as Watford, where
no appreciable quantity of water is required for manufacturing
purposes (except by brewers, who have their own wells), 30 gallons
per head per diem, with a constant supply, which it ought to be
made compulsory for all towns to be provided with, woidd be ample.
This is about 11,000 gallons per head per annum, the cost of
softening which, at id. per 1,000 gallons, including materials,
labour, depreciation of plant, and interest on outlay, would be 5id.,
or we may say» in order to leave a margin for contingencies, 6d.
It is a difficult matter to estimate the saving which the use of
the softened water would occc^ion. The estimated saving at the
Darenth Asylum and Schools, due to the introduction, in 1887,
of softening-plant, is stated to have been, up to December, 1892,
at the rate of nearly 10«. per head per annum, the number of
inmates being about 1,800. Interest on plant does not, however,
appear to have been allowed for. In his Report to the Metropolitan
Asylums Board, after the first twelve months of working the
process, the Steward pointed out that in addition to this saving
the wear and tear on the linen had been greatly reduced by its being
washed in softened water. A large proportion of the saving here
is due to reduced wear and tear of steam-boilers, and of steam and
hot-water pipes, which are not used in an ordinary household, and
therefore the average saving throughout a town is not likely to be
so great as it is in such a public institution as this. Even if about
half as much, say 5«. per head per annum, it would represent at
least £4,200 per annum for the town of Watford.
The advantages so far considered have all been in favour of soft
water, or of softened water; and there is one other advantage in
the softening of water by the lime-process. Organic and other
impurities are thrown down with the chalk, and thus the water
is purified as well as softened. (See Table IV, p. 116.)
And not only is this the case, but the softening of the water
appears to render it less liable to become contaminated by con-
fervoid growths. In a Report to the Canterbury Gas and Water
Company, Mr. S. C. Homersham said: ** Spring water, when softened,
may be kept in open reservoirs exposed to the air, light, and sun,
witiiout becoming covered on its surface with vegetation as the
hard water does which issues from a chalk spring ; for such water,
though naturally free from organic matter, has a source of con-
tamination within itself. When exposed to air, light, and sun,
more especially in warm weather, the duplicate dose of carbonic
acid that keeps the chalk dissolved gives rise to masses of vege-
tation that float in the water. Such masses (Confervas) soon grow,
soon become corrupt, soon give forth an offensive marshy odour,
and become the habitat of animalcules and other living organisms
that permeate and contaminate the water." (Quoted in * Sixth
Report of the Rivers Pollution Commission,' p. 210.) Whether
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
112 J. HOPKINSOir — BELATIYB ADTANTAGES
or not Mr. Homersham may be correct as to the cause of the
immunity of softened water from such organic vitiation, its
beautiful light blue tint, as seen in the softening-tanks at the
Colne Valley Waterworks, bears witness to its extreme purity.
The only advantages which I can find in a hard-water supply are
the certain immunity from lead-poisoning, and the sparkling nature
of the water, which renders it, te some, more pleasant te tiie taste
than is a softened water, or a naturally soft water.
The action of soft water upon lead has been fully investigated,
especially in the exhaustive enquiry which was made preparatory
te the introduction into Glasgow of the soft water of Loch Katrine,
when the only cases of lead-poisoning which were found to have
occurred in any town supplied with soft water were traced to the
action of the lead contained in paint upon plumbers and house-
painters. It was also elicited that the water of Loch Katrine,
which is about as soft as it is possible for any natural water to be,
having a hardness of less than one degree, although having a decided
action upon bright lead when taken direct from the lake, after
it has run some distance has no action whatever upon leaden pipes,
and this was found te be the case upon its introduction into Glasgow.
Cases of lead-poisoning from very soft water of a slightly acidulous
composition, have, however, occurred in the North of England, but
as it is only proposed to reduce the hardness of the Watford water
to about 6 degrees, there need be no fear of lead-poisoning when it
does not occur with the very pure water of less than one degree
of hardness obtained from Loch Katrine.
The teste of the water is a matter upon which opinions differ.
Prom habit we usually prefer the water te which we are accustomed,
but I think that to make softened water palatable to all it is only
necessary to ensure its thorough aeration.
The title of this paper may appear to be somewhat misleading in
view of the conclusion at which I have arrived that the advantages
are all in favour of soft wator, with the reservation that although
the balance of evidence and the consensus of opinion of those b^t
qualified to judge are in favour of the dietetic superiority of soft
water over nard water, such superiority cannot be absolutely
proved. I prefer, however, to leave the first part of the title as
announced in our circular before the writing of the paper was
commenced, when I thought that something might be said in
favour of hard water and that there would not be so much to say
in favour of soft water. In the case of Watford the only possible
objection to softening the water that could be urged is the cost,
and although that would probably be saved ten times over in the
use of the water, most people would rather incur an indirect ex-
penditure of half a sovereign, if not very patent to them, than be
directly taxed a shilling. The poorer classes would benefit the
most, for their water-rate is very much less in proportion to the
quantity of water they use than is the rate charged to those who
live in highly-rented houses.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
or HABD ITTD SOFT WATVB.
113
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dshiei
101, 1
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Previous
Sewage
con-
tamina-
tion.
2 3,3,8 gaaa° 3,2=8 s«8%s.
tC tCvo fo ^ ci ro »n ^foo•^^^f^«
AND Springs in
m Commission,* p
HI^Hgir^aiH?:!.
1
'vinommy
P:^5|?^?||lp:|IBa
Table I. — Analyses op Water from Chalk Welm
( Compiled from Tables in the * Sixth Report of the Rivers Pollutii
88°i''|l8'<='8®*"'8°<='
•^l^2oJ^I^J
aiUB^JQ
•noqjBO
o p o p p o p o o p p^ o p
ll^lls^p*??!?!!!?
33 it
QO
in
5
Watford— Well at Waterworks, 1870 _.
Well at Waterworks, 1873 .
Ware— Mew Kiver Co.'s well at Amwell, 1868
„ Amwell Spring, 1873
<1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
114
J. H0PKIN90N — EELATITE ADY^VTkOBS
Table II. — Habdfess of thb Watbe supplied to Londoit
THBOVGHOUT THE TEAB 1892, DT O&AINS PER GALLON.
{Compiled from the Official ReporU ^On the Composition and
Quality of Daily Samples of Water supplied to London,'')
Month.
January „
Februaiy..
March
April ..
May
June..^
July
August ..
September
October „
November
December
17-32
1638
1673
14*94
1500
14*28
13*77
14-26
1407
15-10
17-42
18-58
^1
18-63
17*43
17*89
15-94
15*78
14-42
13*50
14*05
1326
14*01
18-63
1984
.a o
00
16-03
1657
i6-io
14*53
1498
13*35
13-65
14' 1 1
13*49
14-89
1774
1800
ll
16-73
16-73
16-26
14-94
15*52
13*55
13*14
1279
1204
12-84
15*47
17-16
17-63
16-41
16-38
15-05
150S
14*48
13*79
1300
1300
1309
16-25
1779
-go
o-J
17-10
16-40
16-31
1505
14-84
14*21
13*50
13*17
12*49
12*59
1594
17*69
17-03
16*73
16-68
1484
15-00
13*73
13*39
13-50
1305
13*06
1605
17-84
17-21
16-66
16*62
15-04
15-17
14*00
13*53
1355
13*06
13*65
i6-8o
18 13
Year
15-65 16*11 15-29
14*76
15-16
14-94
15-07
15-28
Table III. — Mean Annual Death-rate pee 1,000 in 1882-91, nr
26 LABGE Towns in England, with the Population in 1891.
{Compiled in part from Tables in the Appendices to the *Jt^ort of
the Royal Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply y^ p, 347.)
Towns supplibd with Habd Water.
1
Towns supplied with Sopt Watbh.
Municipal
Borough.
Population.
Death-
rate.
Municipal
Borough.
Population
Death-
rate.
Birkenhead
Birmingham »..
Briatol... .....
Cardiff
Derby
Hull
Leicester.....
Newcastle „ „
Norwich -...-»......
Nottingham «.«
Portsmouth .....
Sunderland
Wolverhampton
99.857
478,113
221,578
128,915
94.146
200,044
174,624
186,300
100,970
213,877
159,251
131,015
82,662
19-5
20-2
:?i
17-9
19-9
19*6
24-1
20*4
197
19-8
22-6
21-8
Blackburn .
Bolton
Bradford „..
HaUfax
Huddersfield ««.
Leeds
LiverpooL ^..
Manchester
Oldham
Plymouth
Preston
SalfonL
Sheffield
120,064
115,002
216,361
89,832
95,420
367,505
517,980
505,368
107,573
198,139
324,243
24*5
22-5
19*5
21-3
205
22-2
242
272
22-7
22-4
27*3
22-3
21*9
Mean
174,720
20-5
Mean
221,015
23-0
London (** Greater London"), with a population of 5,633,806 and a death-
rate of 19*9, and Brighton, with a population of 115,873 and a death-rate
of 17*7, are supplied with hard water.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF HA&D AlTD SOFT WATEB.
115
Table IY. — Impumtt ajud Habdness of Water from Chalk Wells aio)
Biters before akd after softening with Lime bt Clark's Process.
( Compiled from Tables in the * Sixth Report of the Rivers FoUutim
Commission^'' pp. 209 and 215.)
SOVRCB.
Bbforb Sopthnino.
Aftbel Sopttoino.
h5
IJ
If
07^
1
if
ll
If
oi2
3
From ChM JTelU.
Puru
per
100,000
Farts
per
ioo»ooo
Parts
per
100,000
Grains
per
GaUon
pMrts
per
100 000
Pans
per
100,000
Paru
pt-r
100,000
Grmlns
per
QaUoa
Tring Water-Bupply ^
2860
•036
CIO
18-41
818
•041
•008
224
Caterham Water-supply .....
2768
•028
•009
14-84
880
-015
•003
3-08
Canterbury Water-supply.....
3360
•012
012
18-41 !
11-94
3*43
Kent Company's Water «..
40-42
•045
•014
2037
1900
•044
-016
490
From the Thamet,
Grand Junction Co.'sWater*
2746
•159
•026
14-40
12-49
•no
•019
3*51
From the Lea,
New BiTcr Co.'s Water ....
3060
•135
•018
15-68
1376
•100
•on
420
Ayerage
31*39 -069
•CIS
17-02
12-36
-051
•009
3-56
* Mean of ten analyses given in the * Beport.'
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XIV.
ON THE ADVANTAGES OF A SUPPLY OF SOFT WATER FOB
THE TOWN OF WATFORD.
By Akthuk King, M.B., CM., D.P.H.
Read at Watford, 29M January, 1895.
Absolutely pure water is a very rare if not an unknown
substance in nature, and haa only been prepared by very careful
distillation in vessels constructed of silver. In tbis condition, as
is well known, it is composed of two elementary gases — oxygen
and hydrogen — in the proportion by volume of one of the former to
two of the latter. If we passed a current of electricity through
some water we should see the bubbles of gas come off at the two
poles of the battery, and if over each pole we placed an inverted
glass tube we should find that at all stages of the process we
should have double the volume of hydrogen to that of oxygen.
Hydrogen is an inflammable gas, and oxygen is what is called
a supporter of combustion; that is, it unites with bodies of the
nature of hydrogen to give out light and heat, a new body being
formed. Coal gas is largely composed of hydrogen and carbon
or charcoal, and we know that when we heat it to a certain
temperature it bursts into a flame, uniting with the oxygen of the
air, two new bodies being formed, namely, water and carbonic
acid gas. Perhaps some people do not quite appreciate the full
importance of water to living beings, especially human beings. It
forms about three-quarters by weight of the body of animals,
a large percentage of all our drinks, and from about 10 to 80 per
cent, of the different food-stuffs. It occurs largely dissolved in the
atmosphere in the form of vapour. In this way it moderates the
direct heat of the sun, and, still more important, it prevents the
earth from losing heat by radiation ; indeed, if it were not for this
watery vapour the earth would not be a fit place for us to live on,
for its whole surface would be frozen in a single night. I mention
this presence of water in the air because it is of the utmost
importance in connection with the question of water-supply.
Our main reservoir for water is the ocean, covering as it does
nearly three-quarters of the surface of the earth. Unfortunately
we do not all live near the sea, and, if we did, the large quantity of
salts dissolved in sea- water would prevent our using it for drinking
or domestic purposes. Nature, however, comes to our rescue, and
by distillation and evaporation the sea gives up a large quantity
of its water to the atmosphere in a very pure condition, retaining
the salts itself. The warmer the air the more water it will absorb,
and when this heated air comes to colder portions of the earth it
cannot hold so much water ; clouds are formed, and eventually the
surplus water falls in the form of rain. In this country we are
chiefly supplied with water distilled from the seas which lie
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADYAKTAGKS OF SOFT WATER, ll7
between the tropics, aod we owe in great measure the mildness of
our climate to the latent heat conveyed by this watery vapour,
which is again set free when it becomes condensed and falls to the
earth as rain or snow. This rain falling on the different soils gets
disposed of in various ways : some runs off the surface at once,
forming streams, lakes, and rivers ; a part again evaporates and
goes back into the air ; and a third portion sinks into the ground
until it comes to some impervious stratum, when it accumulates in
underground reservoirs or forms streams that break out at a lower
level on the surface as springs.
Although the water when in the form of clouds is nearly pure,
when it falls as rain it dissolves and takes up various matters
which it meets with in the air, and various mineral and organic
matters from the soils it falls upon. Near manufacturing towns it
often contains sulphuric acid from the combustion of the sulphur in
the coal consumed, and in all localities it dissolves a considerable
quantity of the carbonic acid gas existing in the air. This carbonic
acid, as I have mentioned before, is the result of the burning
or combustion of carbonaceous materials, and is prodiiced in large
quantities from any ordinary wood or coal fire, and is also
given off by the lungs of animals as the result of the burning or
oxidation which goes on in them. I want especially to draw
attention to this fact, because this gas in rain-water falling upon
chalk is an important agent in the production of hard water.
Hardness of water merely means that the water contains certain
mineral substances which decompose soap, and render it a difficult
matter to get any undecomposed soap dissolved in the water. The
chief hardening ingredients are salts of lime and magnesia, but
in the case of the Watford water we are principally dealing with
carbonate of lime or chalk. To obtain a numerical expression for
this quality of hardness, a sample containing 1 lb. of carbonate of
lime in 10,000 gallons of water is said to possess one degree of
hardness. The hardness of water is divided into permanent and
temporary; the former is uninfluenced by boiling, the latter is
removed by boiling for half- an-h our. As we cannot get rid of the
former by the different softening methods, we will onlv consider
the latter, which is principally due to the carbonates oi lime and
magnesia. The temporary hardness of the "Watford water appears to
vary somewhat between 15 degrees and 20 degrees.
The next question to consider is where the water obtains this
considerable quantity of chalk. As there are extensive beds of
chalk beneath the surface both around Watford and at a great
many other localities in England, and as chalk is a porous medium,
it stands to reason that the water from wells, springs, and streams
in such situations should contain a great deal of (Ussolved chalk.
But carbonate of lime or chalk is insoluble in pure water, so we
must have some additional information as to the method of its
solution. I have drawn attention to the fact that rain-water when
it arrives on the ground has a good deal of carbonic acid gas in it,
and it is the presence of this gas that enables the water soaking
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
118 A. KIKG — THB ADYAITTAGES
into the chalk to dissolve some of the carbonate of lime on its way.
With regard to water from deep wells in the chalk, the Bake of
Richmond's Commission on the Pollution of Bivers made the
following report in 1874: — "The unpolluted deep weU waters
from the Chalk rank amongst the best and most wholesome with
which we have become acquainted. They are almost invariably
colourless, palatable, and brilliantly clear. . . . The Chalk con-
stitutes magnificent underground reservoirs in which vast volumes
of water are not only rendered and kept pure, but stored and
preserved at a uniform temperature of about 60° F., so as to be cool
and refreshing in summer and far removed from the freezing
point in winter. It would probably be impossible to devise, even
regardless of expense, any artificial arrangement for the storage of
water that could secure more favourable conditions than those
naturally and gratuitously afforded by the Chalk; and there is
reason to believe that the more this stratum is drawn upon for
its abundant and excellent water, the better will its qualities as
a storage medium become. Every 1,000,000 gallons of water
abstracted from the Chalk carries with it in solution on an average
H ton of the chalk through which it has percolated, and thus
makes room for an additional volume of about 110 gallons of water.
The porosity or spouginess of the chalk must therefore go on aug-
menting, and the yield from wells judiciously sunk, ought, within
certain limits, to increase with age. The only drawback to these
waters is their hardness, but this disadvantage is greatly reduced
by the circumstances that it is chiefly of the * temporary ' kind,
and can be therefore easily and cheaply removed by the application
of Clark's process."
Let us consider next more fully the meaning of hardness as
applied to the action of the chalk on soap. In chemistry we
recognize two distinct classes of compounds, acids and bases : tiiese,
having the property of uniting, together forming a third class
called salts. Carbonate of lime is a salt formed of the base, quick-
lime, and the acid, carbonic acid gas. Soap in the same way is a
salt formed of the base or alkali, soda, and some rather complex
organic acids called fatty acids. It often happens that when the
two salts are brought together in solution the acid of the one goes
to the base of the other and vice versdy two new salts being formed
as a consequence ; and although both the original salts might be
soluble in water, it does not follow that these new salts formed are
soluble also. This is the case when chalk and soap come together
in solution. The chalk which is soluble by virtue of the carbonic
acid gas in the water reacts on the soap and the base of the gas,
and quick-lime unites with the fatty acids of the soap, giving rise
to the white, curdy, insoluble salts that we see floating on the top
of hard water when we try to wash in it, the soda of the soap or
base uniting with the acid of the chalk to form carbonate of soda ;
so that instead of chalk and soap we get carbonate of soda and
lime salts of the fatty acids.
If we want to do away with this property of hardness, how are
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF A SUPPLY OF SOFT WATER. 119
we to manage it ? The simplest answer is by getting rid of the
chalk. "We have already seen that were it not for the carbonic
acid gas in the water there would be no chalk, so we may go a
step farther and say, Get rid of the carbonic acid and the chalk will
become insoluble. Of course, if we add sufficient soap we may in
time get the water softened, but this is an expensive method, and
there are always the nasty curdy compounds formed which get into
the pores of the skin in our personal ablutions and clog them up.
One well-known method of softening, which I have mentioned
before, is by boiling the water for some time. This drives the
carbonic acid gas off and liberates the chalk from solution, but to be
effective the boiling must last for at least twenty minutes to half-
an-hour ; and there is another objection mentioned by the Chemical
Commission of 1851, as follows: — "It is in the more careful
washing for the upper and middle classes that the advantages of
soft water become f uUy sensible ; for where a hard water is heated
the carbonate of calcium is precipitated on the linen, carrying down
with it the colouring matter of the dirty water, and producing
stains which there is the greatest difficulty in afterwards removing
from the linen. The colouring matter from the water is thus,
indeed, fixed upon the cloth by the precipitated calcium salt with
the tenacity of a mordant.'* When, however, the chalk is pre-
cipitated by the lime-process which I am now about to mention,
this carrying down of organic impurities is a distinct advantage,
and I show here a specimen of precipitate derived from hard water,
which has taken down with it a considerable quantity of dirty
matter much better than any filter would have done. Compared
with others the easiest and most economical way of getting rid of
the chalk is by the lime-method.
It may seem somewhat paradoxical to add lime to get rid of
chalk, but what we add is quick-lime (the base), which unites
with the carbonic acid gas in the water and forms more chalk. By
thus giving the gas something else to do it can no longer dissolve
the chalk originally held in solution, and both the newly-formed
chalk and the chadk in solution fall down to the bottom of the
water, leaving it comparatively free from hardness. How shall we
tell when we have added enough lime ? If while we are mixing
the lime with the hard water we add it till we get a pale yellow
colour with a solution of nitrate of silver, this shows a very slight
excess of lime which will quite disappear after the water is allowed
to remain half-an-hour longer before being again tested.
I should like to point out one fact with regard to washing and
laundry purposes, and that is that we cannot use hard water at all
till it has been softened. It must be softened either by boiling,
soda carbonate, lime, or soap, and tiie question that we have to
ask ourselves is, Which is the most economical and convenient?
Boiling is neither of these, as it requires time and gives trouble ;
soda is expensive; and soap is both expensive and unpleasant.
The lime-method is both economical and gives us a most pleasant
water to use.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
120 A. KDXQ — THE ADTAVTAOEB
It may have been observed that I have not yet touched upon the
medical aspects of the question. In this case, as in some others,
I may say that "doctors differ." I have no doubt in my own
mind that in some cases hard water produces indigestion, con-
stipation, and other troubles resulting from these conditions, and
I am inclined to think that possibly the continual drinking of even
small quantities of lime-salts may promote calcareous degeneration
of the arteries and valves of the heart. With regard to the skin
there can be no two opinions that softened water is better than hard,
and I believe that Dr. Adams Clarke has found at the Leavesden
School a great improvement in the condition of the children's skins
since the introduction of softened water there. One point I cannot
help touching on, and that is the question of rickets ; I have heard
it stated that hard water is a beneficial thing in the prevention of
this disease. I wish rickets were only a question of chalk, as it
might easily be dealt with then. Rickets, however, is a disease
of improper feeding and bad hygienic surroundings. It is not
water containing chalk that the children want, but good food
containing phosphate of lime. If children had good pure air,
plenty of light, and genuine new milk instead of so much of those
starchy foods, they would not suffer from rickets. In this con-
nection I may quote the evidence of the Eight Hon. Lyon Playfair
(now Lord Playfair) before the Royal Commission of 1869 : —
{Questioned hy Mr. Preetwich): "Do not some medical men
consider that the presence of carbonate of lime in drinking-water
is rather desirable than otherwise for health ? — I have seen evidence
given in cases of water-supply, not only that it was desirable for
health, but that it was absolutely necessary for the formation of the
bones. But that showed a lamentable want of chemical knowledge,
because the lime required in food does not come from the water,
but from the solid articles of food taken, and I do not think that
the lime taken in water has any influence on the processes of
bodily nutrition."
With regard to the other advantages of softened water I may
quote the evidence of the same witness : —
( Questioned hy the Duke of Richmond) : "I gather from your
statement that the mass of the population would be likely to be
more cleanly, and therefore more healthy, if the water were soft,
and less soap were used, than if the water were hard, causing a
great difficulty in producing lather? — Yes, it is a curious thing
that one never washes one's hands in a basin with hard water;
where the water is hard you take a small quantity of it in the
hand itself, and rub the soap until it forms a lather in the small
quantity of water that is in the hand, and you merely use the
water in the basin to rinse off that which you have employed in
cleaning the hands ; but with soft water you use the whole mass
of water for detergence, and therefore it is more effective.
"And it is therefore more conducive to health? — Yes, a more
thorough cleansing takes place.
" So that if it were a question of obtaining either hard or soft
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF A SUPPLY OP SOFT WATER. 121
water for a population at the same price, you would give the
preference largely to soft water, taking all the purposes into
consideration ? — At a very great difference in price I would give
the preference to soft water, because the economy in manufactures
is so enormously great with soft water."
{Questioned ly Mr, Sarrison): "Supposing that you had a
choice between a hard water, such as is now supplied from the
basin of the Thames, supposing it to be free from the impurities
of sewage and otherwise, and a pure soft water, which should you
give the preference to, with regard to the question of drinking or
its use for culinary purposes ? — Undoubtedly to the soft water. In
all cases I strongly recommend towns not to accept hard water.
Within the last three or four weeks I have been consulted with
regard to supporting a Bill in Parliament for a water-supply to
a town, and 1 refused to support it because it had a water with
20 degrees of hardness.
" You do not consider that hardness is positively injurious to
health, do you? — In some cases hard water might prove injurious,
as in calculous affections and in dyspepsia ; still, generally a
tolerably hard water may be taken without much inconvenience ;
but water of 20 degrees of hardness is very hard water, and I
should much prefer even for purposes of health that it should
be softer.
** And you think that it [soft water] is decidedly conducive to
the health of a town, especially amongst the lower orders of the
people ? — I think it is of very great importance indeed."
Another point worth a moment's consideration is the furring
of kettles and hot- water apparatus by hard water. The iron of an
ordinary kettle is usually less than 1-16 in. thick and is a good
conductor of heat, but the fur round the inside where hard water
is used is at least 1-8 in. thick, and this fur is a bad conductor
of heat. Consequently, when we want to boil water the heat has
to pass through three times the thickness of material, two-thirds of
which is a bad conductor. It has been found by experience that
a kettle boils in a little more than one-third the time when soft
water is used in place of hard water. Again, kitchen boilers
average about i in. thick, the fur in this case is about ^ in. to 1 in.
thick, and the pipes being more or less furred, the proper circula-
tion of the hot water is interfered with. To obtain hot water the
fire must be very fierce, and the boiler then gets burnt away in
about one-half or one- quarter the time it otherwise would be. The
pipes also have to be repaired and cleaned, and there is the risk of
explosion.
With reference to the matter of cooking, not having had much
personal experience of culinary operations, I think it will be
better if I let a cook speak for himself. Monsieur Soyer, the head
cook at the Reform Club, was examined before the Royal Com-
mission on "Water Supply, and gave some very interesting evidence.
I may mention, by the way, that after the completion of this Com-
mission, the chairman, the Duke of Richmond, was so convinced of
VOL. VIII. — PART V.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
122 A. SING — THE ABYANTAGES
the advantages of softened water that he had all his water at
Goodwood treated hy Clark's process.
To return to Monsieur Soyer's evidence. It is as follows : —
" You are known to the Commissioners from your writings on
cookery ; and you have doubtless had occasion to try the qualities
of different waters for culinary purposes ; you have probably used
Thames water? — Yes, I have; when I first became cook to the
Reform Club we occupied Gwydyr House, which was then supplied
with Thames water.
" What was your experience of it? — That it was very hard and
inconvenient. . . .
**What was the effect of the hardness in cooking? — That we
were in many processes obliged to use potass or soda for the water,
to soften it.
" What were the processes ? — ^Tirst, in boiling cabbage, greens,
spinach, asparagus, [and] especially French beans, hard water gives
them a yellow tinge. Hard water shrivels greens and peas, [this]
will be more particularly noticed in French beans. The process
of boiling is also longer.
** That requires more fuel ? — Certainly.
" What would be the difference in time ? — ^With dry vegetables
certainly one-fourth more.
** How is it with potatoes ? — ^I do not think it acts so much upon
potatoes, but still it has an influence upon all sorts of vegetables.
I do not see the same effects, however, upon roots generally, as
upon leaves generally ; the effects are very powerful.
" What do you find to be the effect of hard water upon the animal
foods ? — Upon salt beef the hard water is not so good ; it does not
open the pores of the meat so freely as soft water. On fresh meat
it likewise has a prejudicial effect, but not equal to that on
vegetables. It has the effect of making very white meat whiter
than [does] the soft water. Upon all delicate things it has, how-
ever, a more marked effect ; for example, in making beef- tea,
chicken or veal broth, or upon lamb ; and the more delicate a
substance is, the greater is the influence of a hard water upon it.
A hard water as it were compresses the pores, whilst a soft water
dilates them and the succulent matter which they contain, [and]
it makes them more nutritious. The evil of hard water is more
visible in small quantities, such as [of] broth or beef -tea.
**Then it will be the more prejudicial or expensive in domestic
cookery, which must be in small quantities ? — Exactly so ; in the
larger operations, where there is much boiling, the boiling itself,
and for a long time, reduces the hardness. In the small quantities
requisite for invalids and delicate persons the disadvantages are the
most experienced. When I used Thames water at Gwydyr House,
I have had quantities boiled in order to soften it, and have then let
it get cool and kept it ready for use for the smaller operations.
" What is the effect of hard water upon bread ? — I have not had
practical experience in bread-making; but there is not the least
doubt that soft water is of the greatest importance as making the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OP A SUPPLY OP SOPT WATER. 123
best bread. This is exemplified in Paris, where the water is hard,
and where that bread which is made in imitation of Gonesse bread,
though made with the same flour aod by the same bakers, never
equals that made at the place itself, where the water is soft. I am
informed that part of the water at Glasgow is very soft, and that
the Scotch bakers [who have used it], when they first come to
London, cannot understand why the bread does not rise so well
as in Glasgow, even though they make use of the same yeast
and flour. . . .
** What is your experience in respect to tea? — The hard water is
injurious in deteriorating the flavour ; it also requires more tea to
give an equal strength. There can be no doubt that the softer
water is of great importance ; we have found it so with the water
used at the Reform Club, which is Artesian well water.
"In respect to coffee, what is your experience? — Hard water
produces a similar effect, but not quite so powerful.
"From these experiments and your extensive knowledge, will
you state the general results as to the relative power of the hardest
and the softest water in making tea ? — I should say that whilst
with the hfird water three cups might be made, with the soft
water about five might be made.
** What extra expenditure of tea, then, would the use of the
Thames water incur in making tea ? — J^oarly one- third.
"That is on all the tea consumed in the Metropolis? — Yes, I
have no doubt of it.
" Do you consider that the action of water on tea is a fair test
and representative of its action on meat and vegetables in general,
in all the delicate processes of cookery? — Yes, I do, and I have
proved it in the following way. I have taken the solution of 16°,
and compared it with the water from the well of the Reform Club.
First, with vegetables, that is carrots, turnips, and onions, cut into
small pieces of about one inch long and an eighth of an inch square,
such as are used in Julienne soup, placed in two saucepans, with the
same quantities of water and on the same gas-stove : those cooked
in the Reform water were quickly done, and the flavour of the
vegetables [was] in the water ; whilst those cooked in the solution
never became tender, nor did the flavour go into the water.
Secondly, with potatoes, 1 cut a peeled potato into two, and boiled
them at the same time in the above waters: the difference was
easily distinguishable, that which was boiled in the hard water
being harder but at the same time whiter. Thirdly, in extracting
the juice or gravy from meat: the soft water does so quickly
and well ; but the hard water, instead of opening the meat, seems
to draw it closer together, and to solidify the gluten ; and I believe
that the true flavour of the meat cannot be extracted by hard water.
In [the] boiling of salt meat less salt is extracted when boiled in
hara water, and at the same time the meat is not so tender as when
boiled in soft water. Soft water evaporates one-third faster than
hard water. I should in every way give the preference to soft
water.'' . . .
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
124 ADVAITTAGES OF SOFT WATFJt.
I think we are in a position now to summarize the advantages
of softened water under three heads — Health, Convenience, and
Economy.
He<dth, — As to the wholesomeness of water with a hardness of
15° before boiling and 5° afterwards, the evidence given before the
Royal Commission on "Water Supply, 1869, is somewhat conflicting;
for while Dr. Letheby considered a moderately hard water, such as
Thames water, best suited for drinking purposes and the supply
of cities. Dr. Parkes maintained that the amount of hardness
should not exceed 10 or 12 degrees if possible. Mr. Simon and
Dr. Lyon Playfair, on the other hand, although they did not
condemn the . London water on account of its hardness, both
expressed themselves in favour of a softer water for purposes of
health. The inference that may be drawn from this and other
evidence would, therefore, appear to be this, that the total hardness
of a good water ought not to exceed 15 degrees nor the permanent
hardness 5 degrees. The Watford water has much more than this
amount of total hardness.
Convenience. — I think we must all acknowledge the greater
convenience of softened water both in washing, laundry, and
cooking operations.
Economy, — With regard to soap the General Board of Health
in 1850 issued a report on the Thames water, and among other
remarks occurs the following: **That the saving in soap from the
use of soft water, in the operation of washing (the expense of
washing linen and other clones being estimated, at an average of
1«. per head per week, to be nearly £5,000,000 per annum on the
population of the Metropolis), would be probably equivalent to
the whole of the money expended at present in water-supply."
Of course these figures would come out much larger at the
present day. It has been calculated that a saving of Is. 6d.
in every private family of five persons, and of 6d. in every working
man's family, is effected by the lessened consumption of soap, fuel,
and tea, and that for this there would be an increase of id. per
week for water-rate in one case, and id. per week in the other.
I will not go further into the practical methods of softening,
except to say that there are two systems in use. The first is to
let the precipitated chalk subside in tanks as is done in the Colne
Valley Waterworks, and in the second, the water is filtered
through a continuous band of cloth, which is kept continually
worked. The latter, I believe, would be found the most practical
for Watford.
I must express my regret, in conclusion, that the lack of time at
my disposal has prevented me from preparing a few simple experi-
ments that might have relieved the monotony of the subject.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XV.
CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN IN HERTFORDSHIRE
IN THE YEAR 1894.
By John Hopkiwson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.K.Met.Soc.
Read at Watford, 23nf ApHl, 1896.
This is the eighth annual report of observations made at our five
Climatological Stations, and comprises the usual series of tables.
The mean temperature of Hertfordshire in 1894, deduced from
these observations, was 1^*3 above that of the seven previous years,
and 0°'2 above the mean of 1882-86, showing that the year was
rather warm. The mean daily range was small, being 0°*6 below
the mean of 1887-93, and 0°-8 below that of 1882-86. The
extreme range was great, owing to the low temperature (4°*0)
recorded at New Bamet in January. Humidity and cloud were
about the average ; the rainfall was heavy and on an unusually
large number of days. The most northern station (Royston) was
as usual the warmest, and our most southern station (New Bamet)
had as usual much the greatest range of temperature.
The observations are made at 9 a.m., the maximum temperature
and the rainfall being entered to the previous day.
ROYSTON,
(London Road.)
Latitude: 62° 2' 34" N. Longitude: 0° 1' 8" W. Altitude:
301 feet.
Observer: Eale fFortham, F.R.MsLSoe.
Months
Temperature of the Air
i
1
Rain
Means
Extremes
a
P
Mean
Min. 1 Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
Jan
Feb
March _
June
July ^
August
E:f:::::
N07 ^
Dec
o
36-6
40-2
51-8
50-I
58-8
634
6o-6
54-2
496
453
40-4
31-4
33-8
347
407
402
489
527
521
46-5
431
396
35*3
418
467
546
629
6o-o
68-8
74'2
690
61 9
561
511
45-4
IO-4
12*9
199
22-2
198
199
2IS
16 9
15-4
13-0
ii'S
lO'I
100
19-8
287
32-3
27-6
412
477
43-8
346
298
310
253
52*0
560
678
693
83-9
849
791
722
68*9
6o-8
510
7-
f7
85
79
76
71
82
82
80
li
5*9
U
u
67
67
7*4
ins.
1-56
153
093
076
1-50
1-97
270
290
1-38
2-65
148
19
15
10
9
15
13
17
17
13
19
17
16
Year .....
497
416
577
161
lO'O
849
82
6-2 |2277
180
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
126
J. HOPEINSON — CUKATOLOGICAL OBSEBYATIOirS
Latitude ;
BERKHAMSTED.
(Bosebank.)
51^ 45' 40" N. Longitude : 0° 33' 30" W. Altitude :
400 feet.
Observer : Edward MaioUy, F,R,Met.8oe,
Months
Temperature of the Air
5*
2
1
3
Bain
Means
Extremes
§
Q
Mean
Min.
Max. jBange
Min.
Max.
Jan
Feb
March ^.
April
May
June -.-
July
August....
Sept
Oct
Not
Dec
o
37*1
40-9
441
49-1
489
569
61 I
587
53*5
491
45 3
405
322
347
349
39*4
40-5
48-4
523
51-2
45 9
43-0
39-5
35-6
420
470
587
57-4
^'^
699
661
612
5S-I
511
45 5
9-8
12-3
185
19-3
i6'9
I7-0
17-6
14*9
15-3
I2-I
II-6
9.9
io'8
204
268
327
301
39-8
456
41-5
29*6
307
258
51-5
702
66-2
811
^
69S
63-2
623
512
7o
92
90
81
79
74
79
i^
86
89
91
92
7-2
6-8
4*9
7'o
70
6-4
7-5
7*2
i-l
7-0
7*4
ins.
224
189
1-86
167
?:°8l
248
^'f
1-63
350
518
232
II
14
16
13
19
18
II
21
18
19
Year .....
488
41*5
561
146
IO-8
832
84
7*1
29-98
199
ST. ALBANS.
(The Grange.)
Latitude : 61° 46' 9" N. Longitude : 0° 20' 7" V. Altitude :
380 feet.
Observer: John Sopktnson, F.R, Met. Soe,
Months
Temperature of the Air
1^
1
p
1
Rain
Means
Extremes
■*»
5.
p
Mean
Min.
Max. 1 Range
Min.
Max.
Jan
Feb
March .....
June
July
August.....
Sept
Oct
Nov., ,
Dec
369
40-4
44-2
49-8
491
56-9
61 'O
S8-6
535
491
45-2
40-5
31-4
34*4
357
41 -o
41-2
490
53-2
517
47 3
440
39*6
35 5
424
46S
lU
til
689
656
597
54-2
50-8
45 5
no
12*1
17-0
15-8
157
139
12-4
IO-2
1 1 -2
100
109
230
302
35*3
328
429
463
44*5
SI
51-2
640
69-9
67'2
79-8
81 '6
757
67-5
^'5
621
506
7o
90
f^
80
79
74
75
i
89
90
6-8
6-6
5*4
7*2
6-2
7-0
6-5
7-1
11
7-5
ins.
Ml
236
219
241
209
24
16
12
16
16
14
20
21
15
21
18
19
Year .....
48-8
42*0
SS-6
136
iO'9
81 -6
82
67
3220
212
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TAKEN nr HERTFOBDSHIBE IK 1894.
127
BENNINGTOlSr.
(Bennington Lodge.)
Latitude : 51° 53' 45" N. Longitude : 0° 5' 20" W. Altitude :
407 feet.
Observer: Rev, J. B. Parker^ LL.B., F.R,Met,8oe.
Months
Temperature of the Air
1*
P
m
7
f
Rain
Means
Extremes
1
S-
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
1
4
5
o
7o
ins.
Jan
36-3
31*3
41-2
9.9
107
50-7
89
7*5
3*It
21
Feb
404
34-6
46-3
117
22
.54-6
87
6-6
I-8S
17
March «...
441
408
527
17-2
287
64-J
71-8
78
S-2
I-06
ID
April
50-1
59*3
18-5
328
7^
6-8
180
II
May
48-5
56-8
403
567
i6-4
311
68-8
73
7-8
1-84
17
June
48-5
651
166
42-2
79\3
76
67
1-67
15
July
61 -o
524
69-6
17*2
46-4
82-0
74
7-S
2-82
19
August
586
512
661
149
43 5
11:?
76
7*5
248
20
Sept.
53*4
467
6o-i
134
370
84
7*3
1-64
14
Oct
491
437
54S
IO-8
331
630
89
^•5
2-48
21
Not
45'
397
50-5
IO-8
30-I
61-9
90
7-5
349
19
Dec
406
360
45-2
9-2
25-8
50-5
89
7*3
179
21
Year ....
487
417
55-6
13-9
107
82-0
82
7-2
2503
205
NEW BARNET.
(Gas Works.)
Latitude : 51° 39^ 5" N. Longitude : 0° lO' 15" W. Altitude :
212 feet.
Observer : T, H. Martin, C,E,
Mouths
Temperature of the Air
i
w
t
3
Bain
Means
Extremes
e
g
a
5^
Q
21
15
9
13
9
II
'5
«5
10
18
13
15
Mean
Min.
Max. 1 Range
Min.
Max.
Jan
Feb
March .„..
April .....
May
June
July
August.....
Sept
Oct
Not
Dec
367
402
437
49-0
50-4
ir?
59*8
54-1
497
44*9
404
311
33-0
326
369
395
477
51-0
503
45-3
42-4
37-6
351
423
S4-8
6i-o
61 -4
687
73-1
69-3
62-9
57*1
521
457
11*2
14-5
22 2
241
21*9
21 -O
22-1
19*0
17-6
147
IO-6
4-0
16-5
22 "5
27-g
29-8
390
41 -8
390
31-5
261
24-8
252
52*5
569
668
711
8i-6
85-0
79*9
72-5
630
64*0
51-5
7°
87
86
79
80
88
90
|s
85
70
S-9
6-s
69
6-6
77
ins.
275
189
1*45
210
1-86
2-66
3-21
I -07
377
3-17
224
Year _. 49*1
402
58-0
17-8
4-0
85-0
84
6-4 27-90
164
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
128
J. H0PKIN80K — CUMITOLOGICAL OBSEETATIONS.
HERTFORDSHIRE.
Means of Climatological Observations (with extremes of tempera-
ture) in 1894, at Royston, Berkhamsted, St. Albans, Bennington,
and New Bamet.
Months
Temperature of the Air
1
s
SI
7
1
Rain
Means
Extremes
1
<
£
22
16
10
18
13
20
17
18
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
Jan. .....«„.
Feb
March .....
April ...
May
June
July
August
Sept
Oct.
Nov
Dec
367
404
444
500
49 4
57-5
617
593
537
49*3
45 -2
405
31*5
341
347
39-8
40-3
485
523
513
463
43*2
392
35*5
41-9
46-8
537
601
58-5
66-6
71 -I
67-2
61 -I
55*4
5I-I
45*5
io'4
127
19*0
20-3
182
i8-i
i8-8
15-9
14-8
I2'2
II-9
lo-o
4'o
16-5
22-5
276
39 -o
418
39-0
SI'S
261
248
252
525
569
67-8
75-6
721
839
85-0
79*9
72*5
689
64*0
51-5
7°
89
87
79
79
It
78
11
88
89
6-9
6-2
4-8
6-4
6-9
6-5
7-0
7'
7«
7 9
6-3
7-2
ins.
2-25
I 80
1-53
171
269
313
I 52
319
4-OI
198
Year...
49'o
414
566
15-2
4*0
85-0
83
67
2758
192
Results op Clima.tologica.l Obsekva.tions, 1887-93.
Stations.
Temperature of the Air
1
1
Bain
Means
Extremes
<
f
Mean
Min.
Max.
Range
Min.
Max.
Royston ...„
Berkhamsted „..
St. Albans
Bennington
New Bamet ....
484
47*4
47-8
47*5
47-6
477
40*3
397
406
402
383
39-8
56-5
551
550
547
56-8
55-6
162
154
144
'f5
i8-5
4-3
in
II-8
144
80
93*o
91
91
909
94*5
82
81
82
6-2
7*2
67
11
ins.
2199
25-41
26-12
2431
23*31
160
179
187
141
County
15-8
4*3
94*5
82 1 67
2423
170
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. Vlll, Plate VIII.
Development of the Frog*s Ego.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XVI.
THE BLASTOPORE OF THE FROG'S EGG IN RELATION TO
THE HYPOBLAST.
By J. B. Russell, B.Sc.
Head at Watford, 2Zrd April, 1895.
PLATE VIII.
Before I refer to the special subject which I desire to bring
before the Society with regard to the e^g of the connnon frog
{Rana temporaria), it is necessary to consider some of the earlier
stages in its development.
The process of cell-division, or segmentation as it is called,
of the frog's egg, is very similar to that which takes place in
Amphioxus, but there are important differences which are due
in great measure to the amount and distribution of the food-yolk.
This food-yolk, which is much more abundant in the lower
hemisphere than in the upper, consists of nutritious matter em-
bedded in the substance of the egg, and although this forms a
ready store of nutriment for the developing embryo, yet it greatly
impedes and interferes with the symmetrical segmentation of the
egg, as will be seen from Figures 2, 8, and 4, in Plate VIII.
The egg, just before the completion of the first cleft, dividing it
into two equal parts, is represented in Fig. 1 . It will be observed
that the cleft is at this stage incomplete below, in consequence
of the presence of a large amount of food-yolk. A small cavity,
also, has made its appearance in the interior : this is the segmenta-
tion-cavity (S). After this a second cleft is formed at right angles
to the first ; and Fig. 2 shows the third cleft, which is equatorial
and much nearer the upper pole than the lower.
After this stage the division of the egg is continued according
to no regular plan, but it will be seen from the figures that the
upper cells are smaller than those at the lower pole. This is of
course due to the absence of the hampering effect of yolk-cells.
The ovum at the close of segmentation is represented in Fig. 4.
At this stage we have a ball of cells — the upper ones, pigmented
and devoid of yolk, forming the primary epiblastic layer ; the lower
ones large yolk-beanng cells, and unpigmented. These surround
the segmentation -cavity.
In the succeeding stages of development the epiblast (Ep, Fig. 5)
gradually encircles the egg until only a small circular patch remains
at the lower pole (LB-LB', Fig. 6). The growth of the epiblast
in this way takes place bv the division of yolk-cells into smaller
pigmented ones at the surface.
The point to which I wish to direct special attention is that the
alimentary cavity is formed as a narrow slit-like aperture opening
at LB, Fig. 5. I have placed a section under the microscope
showing this point. The slit rapidly grows inwards and spreads
out beneath the surface of the egg near the future dorsal sur&ice
VOL. Vm. — ^PAET VI. 10
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
130 THE BLAIBTOPORE OF THE FROO's EGG.
of the embryo (M, Fig. 6). A line of pigment appears in the yolk
before the actual separation takes place, and the slit is at first very
narrow, so that the two walls are almost in contact. At a later
stage the floor of the segmentation- cavity (S, Fig. 6) is depressed,
and a cavity is produced which forms part of the alimentary canal
of the embryo.
The slit was formerly described as being formed by a process
of invagination from the epiblast, but Professor Milnes Marshall
has, I believe, clearly shown that this is incorrect, and that the
alimentary tract is formed as has now been described. Thus it
will be seen that the hypoblast which lines the embryonic canal is
derived from yolk-cells.
The circular aperture, LB-LB' (Fig. 6), is spoken of as the
blastopore, and in the section under the microscope is shown the
commencing formation of the hypoblast from its dorsal lip.
In conclusion, I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to the
works of Prof. Milnes Marshall, and to thank Mr. E. G. Famcombe
for kindly preparing the drawings which illustrate this paper.
EXPLANATION OF PLiTE VIII.
Fio.
1 . The egg of the frog just before the completion of the first cleft.
2. The egg after the formation of the first equatorial cleft. N, one of the
nuclei.
3. A later stage in the development. S, the segmentation-cavity.
4. The ovum at the close of segmentation. S, the segmentation-cavity.
6. A further stage, showing the epihiast (Ep) extending round the egg. EN,
differentiated portion of the epiblast. LB, the point at which the slit-like
aperture appears. S, the segmentation-cavity. Y, yolk-cells.
6. Showing the formation of the hypoblast (H) from the yolk-cells (Y).
EN, differentiated portion of the epiblast (Ep). LB, tbe dorsal lip of the
blastepore. LB', the ventral lip of the blastopore. M, the mesenteron
or alimentary canal. S, the segmentation- cavity.
The figures are highly magnified.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XVII.
REPORT ON THE RAINFALL IN HERTFORDSHIRE IN
THE YEAR 1894.
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
Bead at Watford, 26M March, 1896.
There has been no change in the steff of our rainfall observers
since the previous year. The records for the year 1894 entered
in our principal table are therefore the same in number as before,
namely 40. The number of daily records received is 35, which is
two more than that for the previous year. We are still without
observers in the districts of the Upper Ivel (Baldock), the Chess,
the Upper Colne (North Mimms), the Brent, and the Stort (Bishop's
Stortford and Sawbridge worth). The places mentioned are those
where rainfall observers are most required.
Particulars of the 40 rainfall stations, and the monthly and
total rainfall and number of days on which at least 00 1 inch of
rain fell, or, when the measurement is taken to thousandths of an
inch, 005 inch, are given in Tables I and II, pp. 133-135.
The following supplementary table (Table III) gives eight other
records of the rainfall in the year. Two of these are the records
of additional gauges at Rothamsted, and six are taken from * British
Rainfall, 1894.*
Table* II I. — Supplementary to Tables I axd II.
Station.
Observer.
Gauge.
Rain-
fall.
Days.
Dia-
meter.
Height
above
Sea.
6.
8.
»»
9.
10.
11.
12.
18.
Northchurch .„ «
Harpenden — Rothamsted
Elstree— Aldenham House
Watford— Kj-tes -...
Barnet- Trent Park
Welwyn— Danesbury ....
Hoddeadon— FeildesWeir
F. L. Sutton
(Sir J. Lawesandi
(Sir H.Gilbert (
E. Beckett
Mrs. Horsman .....
W. H. Lees .„
A. M. Blake
Major L. Flower
ins.
1
72x87
10
5
5
feet.
400
420
420
239
254
405
401
ins.
2967
2955
3122
27-48
30*06
2742
2828
2998
182
182
201
166
173
189
199
The mean rainfaU in the county in the year 1894 was 27*82
inches. This is 1*08 inch above the average for the decade
1880-89, and 1*39 inch above that for the half ^century 1840-89.
The year was, therefore, rather a wet one. The number of wet
days was very large, the average throughout the county being
nearly 14 per cent, greater than the mean during the 20 years
1870-89.
The second half of the year was a little more than half as wet
again as the £rst half, 11 04 ins. of rain falling in the first six
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
132 J. H0PKIN80N — ^BBPOBT ON THE
months and 16'78in8. in the last six months. The weather was
dry in spring, and there was one long drought from about the
middle of March to the middle of April ; and it was wet in
autumn, especially during the latter part of October and the first
half of November, 22 1 per cent., or two-ninths, of the year's rain
falling in about one-sixteenth of the year.
Droughts in 1894. — Accepting as before the definitions of
Mr. Symons (in * British Rainfall*) of an " absolute drought" as
a period of mare than 14 consecutive days without any rain, and a
** partial drought" as a period of more than 28 consecutive days
with an aggregate rainfall not exceeding 0*01 inch per day, there
were three absolute droughts in 1894, and there was one partial
drought.
The first absolute drought occurred at 33 out of the 35 stations
for which I have the daily rainfall, lasting for
29 days, March 16 to April 13, at 3 stations.
28
27
27
22
20
17
17
16
16
15
15
The stations at which it did not occur were Elm House, Tring,
where the longest period without rain was 14 days (March 16 to
29), and Moor Park, where it was only 13 days (March 17
to 29). The average duration of this drought was 18i days.
The second absolute drought lasted for
15 days, June 21 to July 5, at 24 stations.
The third lasted for
19 days, Nov. 18 to Dec. 6 at 1 station.
1" >> >i 21 ,, „ 6 ,, 1 ,,
15 ,, „ 21 „ „ 5 „ 3 stations.
A partial drought lasted from about the middle of March to the
middle of April, its average duration being 31 days. It prevailed
at 30 stations, and lasted for at least
30 days, March 15 to April 13 at the 30 stations.
31 ,, „ 15 „ „ 14 „ 21 of these.
32 „ „ 13 ,, ,, 13 „ 12 ,, „
32 ,, ,, 15 „ ,, 15 ,, 9 ,, ,,
33 ,, ,, 13 ,, „ 14 ,, 7 stations
of the 12 at which it lasted to at least the 13th of April.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
17
13
15
10
18
13
15
5
25
13
15
March 31
16
April
1
15
March 30
"ll
16
)>
31
15
»
29
16
)>
30
!! 5
BADTFALL DT HESTFORDSHIRK DT 1894.
133
Table I. — ^Hsrtfordshirb KAiNrALL Stations, 1894.
.a
1.
>>
3.
4.
>»
6.
8.
>»
>»
}}
10.
»>
»>
>»
12.
>»
>>
>>
13.
>>
14.
15.
17.
ft
ft
18.
Station.
♦Royston
♦Odsey ...
♦Hitchin— The Fire
♦ „ Bancroft ...
,, The Maples .
* ,, High Down .
•Xring — Elm Houbo ....
,, Pendley Manor.
♦Cowroast
*Berkhamsted — Roeehank
♦ „ Fairhill ...
•Great Gaddesden Vicarage..
♦H. Hempstead— Apftley Mills
• „ Nash MilU..
•Kensworth— The Grove .,
Harpenden — Rothamsted
♦St. Alhans — Gorhambury ...
• „ The Grange ...
•Watford— Oaklandfl
• ,, Frogmore
„ ColneVaLWaterWkfl
•Rickmansworth — Moor Park
•"Welwvn Rectory
•Hatfield— Brocket Hall..
♦Datch worth Rectory
Hertford— Marden Hill..
•Stevenage— "Weston Park ..
• y, Bennington House ..
♦Therfield Rectory
•Throcking Rectory
•Buntingf ord — Hamels Park
•Much Hadham
♦Hertford— Bay
♦Ware— Red House
* ,, Fanhams Hall .
•Broxboume — Stafford House
♦Cheshunt— Old Nurseries
* ,, College
•New Bamet — Gas Works
•Southgate— The Lawns...
OBSERyBS.
Hale Wortham ....
H. George Fordham
William Lucas
Francis Ransom ....
William HiU
Joseph Pollard
E. J. Le Quesne ....
J. G. Williams
Rupert Thomas ....
Edward Mawley ....
W. Bonner Hopkins
Rev. W. T. Drake .
J. Dickinson & Co. .
Miss S. Grace Jones
Lawes and Gilbert ...
Hon. Wm. Grimston
John Hopkinson
Edward Harrison
Arthur P. Blathwayt
William Verini
Lord Ebury
Rev. Canon Wingfield
Lord Mount Stephen
Rev. J. Wardale ....
Richard Hoare
M. R. Pryor
Rev. Dr. Parker
Rev. J. G. Hale ....
Rev. C. W. Harvey...
E. Wallis
T. Woodham Mott ...
W. Clinton Baker ..
Joseph Francis
Miss Joyce Croft
G. J. Newbery
Paul and Son
Rev. Dr. Reynolds ...
T.H.Martin
George A. Church ...
Diameter
of
Gauge.
Height
abc
f Gauge
ve
Sei-level.
Ground.
ins.
8
5
ft. Ins.
6
1 o
fi.t
269 T
260 T
5
i
5
2 I
9
1 I
I I
238^
212 T
220 4C
422 •:j:
5
5
1 2
2 O
460
500 ?
1
5
4 2
I o
I o
345L
401 T
550 T
8
24
12
I o
o 9
3 9
427 /^
260
237 T
5
5
5
5
I o
9
1 o
I o
630 B
420 T
425 T
380 TT
5
5
5
5
5 6
I o
1 o
2 O
273 T
182
220
340T
I
5
5
4
1 o
I o
o 6
228 T
250
386 T
257 T
5
5
8
1 o
470 T
408 :t:
5
5
5
4 3
I o
I o
500
484 T
400 T
5
I o
222 B
8
i
I 2
9
1 o
250
112T
253 T
5
5
I
5
I o
I o
I I
o 9
o 6
118T
92 T
94 T
212
240 T
• Daily fall received for these stations.
t For explanation of these symbols see Vol. Yll, p. 53.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
134
J. HOPEOTSOBT — ^BEPOET OK THE
Table II. — Rahtfall nr
RiYER District.
§ 1
« [J I ^-^^^ {
M 3. Hiz
oq
< I 4. Up.Tliame
00
6. Bulbourne |
7. Gade
8. Ver
10. Lo. Colne
12. Mimram
13. Beane
14. Rib
16. Ash
17. Upper Lea }
18. Lower Lea <
Station.
RoystoiL.
Odsey
Hitchin— The Firs
,, Bancroft
„ TheMaplea^
„ High Down..
Tring — Elm House
,, Pendley Manor
Cowroast „
Berkhamsted — Rosebank ....
„ Fairhill
Great Gaddesden Vicarage
Hemel Hempstead — Apsley Mills -.
,f Nash Mills
Kensworth — The Grove
Harpenden — Rothamsted
St. Albans — Gorhambury
„ The Grange
Watford— Oaklands
,, Frogmore
, , Colne Valley Waterworks
Rickmansworth— Moor Park
Welwyn Rectory ....,„,
Hatfield— Brocket HaU
Datchworth Rectory
Hertford— Marden Hill
Stevenage — Weston Park
Bennington House ^
Therfield Rectory
Throcking Rectory ,
Buntingford— Hamels Park
Much Hadham
Hertford— Bay
Ware — Red House
,, Fanhams Hall .
Broiboume — Stafford House
Cheshunt — Old Nurseries
„ College
New Bamet — Gas Works .
3 — The Lawns «».«....
Jan. Feb. Mas.
ins.
1-56
1-35
1-69
I -So
1-85
164
178
1-99
2*21
224
236
2-24
2-69
2*40
215
2*26
2-67
258
3-52
2§7
2-86
3*21
2*19
2-37
2- 18
199
2*09
2*11
I -80
208
256
215
223
271
278
273
2*64
289
279
ins.
53
59
73
43
61
69
Mean for the County
2-30
178
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EAINFALL IN HERTPORDSHIKE IN 1894.
135
Hertfordshire in 1894.
Apl.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
1 Year.
Days.
ins.
•76
1-03
ins.
160
175
ins.
1-97
174
ins.
270
232
im.
289
2-8i
in».
1-38
1-63
ins.
ins.
3*41
379
ins.
1 ins.
22-86
2257
1^
1*49
1*41
1-42
1-27
209
173
210
i-8i
1-98
1-88
2*05
1-97
1-94
218
204
249
418
3-8o
3-91
447
177
178
1-99
2-30
238
232
248
433
461
4-50
SOI
1-56
1-67
2609
25-50
26-25
27 60
191
201
177
197
1-30
1-42
\t
203
2-22
250
227
2-47
273
183
2-12
376
3-66
480
502
205
216
27-25
28-47
ITs
1-48
1-67
171
1-49
2*05
2 '02
2*11
1-88
1-88
2-56
2-48
238
302
3-28
356
177
i-6i
3*53
350
346
1:3
527
2-35
232
2-22
29-67
2998
3008
199
212
1-49
192
1-67
1-97
201
215
1*93
1-99
201
272
I 99
2-94
302
301
335
200
2 -02
198
3-31
363
3*59
4*99
5-30
519
2-40
2-37
201
29-78
31-36
31-22
192
186
181
1-66
2 -06
2-19
1-82
198
2-47
2-41
227
1-96
2-03
1-94
2-58
2-35
301
278
2-97
350
395
378
2-28
210
2-47
1-88
349
333
373
3-52
575
4-82
5-30
481
2-o6 ,
2*07
236
209
3043
30-04
3453
3220
187
196
203
212
2-o8
2 -02
1-96
180
180
175
229
2-i6
198
242
278
295
259
292
432
4-59
3-50
423
172
1-35
1*21
218
408
387
3-68
4-57
4-88
4-42
423
553
2 20 i
190
1-91
218
34-02
3201
29-64
3560
197
187
169
203
160
1*37
2-04
I 61
V4
1-66
I 79
201
177
169
179
2-o8
253
2 22
2-66
3*31
334
2-49
2-56
1-66
1-45
1*33
1-30
2-86
290
2*47
270
4*49
4*47
396
340
I -60
175 j
171 j
1-52
26-94
2696
24-72
2425
164
193
180
174
l-g
2-04
1-84
203
167
2-51
282
3-26
248
1-65
164
2-48
248
430
3*49
1-84
179
26-46
25-03
193
205
I 02
I -08
1*45
i-8i
213
r8o
1-94
169
1-66
260
1-94
2-53
3-17
258
236
I -61
1-47
1-62
2-95
242
260
360
359
310
171
174
I-9I
2480
23-26
2386
199
203
185
1-74
2-28
2*01
3*21
281
1-50
285
346
224
2774
193
1-46
2-14
1-86
182
190
2-22
2-57
2-59
2-66
2-29
2-44
I-2I
132
136
296
2-84
3-45
330
352
1-82
1-82
189 1
2522
24*04
2571
195
180
193
1-82
2-o8
244
I 80
1-84
207
2-11
196
200
174
I 99
330
342
2*91
2-66
296
276
264
273
3*22
309
I-I3
•91
•99
ro7
•93
'I
3-92
3-24
280
305
316
323
177
1-90
1-88
224 1
228 1
27-20
26-86
26-11
27-89
28-48
199
174
166
164
227
I -61
1-92
196
258
3-19
1-62
319
426
1-94 1
1
27-82
191
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
136 J. HOPKINSON — ^RSPOBT ON THE
The rainfall at the 7 stations at which this partial drought
lasted for 33 days averaged 0*008 in. per diem ; at the 30 stations
at which it lasted for at least 30 days it averaged 0*004 in. per
diem. The average fall during all the periods was 0*006 in.
per diem.
Distribution of Rainfall throughout the Tear. — Of the total
rainfall, 21i % ^^^^ during the winter months (Jan., Feb., and
Dec), 18 % during the spring (March to May), 28 % during
the summer (June to Aug.), and 32i % during the autumn (Sept.
to Nov.). The fall during each quarter and each season, and tlie
deviation from the mean for the half -century 1840-89, was as
follows : —
Fall. Diff. Fall. Diff.
Ist quarter 6-56 ins. —0*08 in. Winter 6 02 ins. -f 0-02 in.
2nd „ ...„ 6-49 —0*52 Spring 600 —0 62
3rd „ 7-39 +0-07 Summer... 7*73 " * "'
4th „ 9-39
-)-0-07 Summer... 7*73 +075
+1-92 Autumn 9*07 +114
November was excessively wet ; August and October also
were very wet. September was the only month much drier than
usual. The difference in each month from the mean for the half-
century was —
Jan. _
m.
—001
April.....
in.
-017
July .....
in.
+0 08
Oct. _
in.
+0-25
Feb. ....
+007
Mav
-0*21
Aug
+0-81
Nov.....
+1*70
Mar
—014
June
—0-14
Sept
—0-81
Dec. ....
—0*04
Thus the fall for the first six months was about half an inch
below the mean, and for the last six months about two inches
above it.
The absolute maximum fall in any one day in each month, and
the stations recording it, were —
ins.
Jan. 14 — Broxbourue and
Cheshunt 0*50
Feb. 17— Odsey 0*64
Mar. 14 — Gorhambury, St.
Albans 1*07
April 24— New Bamet 0*64
May 31— The Fira, Hitchin 0*65
June 3 — PendleyManor,Tring 0*66
* Abo at Moor Park on the 14th.
The wettest day in each month was —
January 8th at 1 station, 14th at 24 stations, 22nd at 6, 29th at 8, 14th and
29th at 1.
February 17th at 39, 23rd at 1.
March 12th at 28, 14th at 12.
April 16th at 2, 17th at 1, 18th at 4, 24th at 29, 26th at 2, 29th at 1, 16tb,
18th, and 24th at 1.
May 10th at 2, 16th at 1, 26th at 30, 30th at 2, Slst at 3, 10th and 26th at 1.
June 3id at 18, 4th at 4, 6th at 1, 6th at 16, 16th at 1, 3rd and 16th at 1.
July 10th at 29, 14th at 6, 22nd at 4, 24th at 1, 10th and 24th at 1.
ins.
July
10— Moor Park, Rick-
mansworth
0-90
Aujr.
24 — Frogmore, Watford
23— Nash Mills
1*70
Sept.
0*79
Oct.
30— Moor Park
1*20
Nov.
12— Cowroast and
Kensworth
1*68»
Dec.
14— Southgate
0*82
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
eautfall in hebtforbshibb in 1894.
137
August lOth at 6, 23rd at 17, 24th at 11, 25th at 5, 23rd and 24th at 1, 23rd
and 2oth at 1.
September 6th at 3, 7th at 1, 8th at 1, 9th at 1, 22nd at 2, 23rd at 14, 24th
at 8, 2dth at 5, 6th and 23rd at 2, 7th and 24th at 2, 23rd and 2dth at 1.
October 24th at 8, 28th at 6, 30th at 26.
Kovember 12th at 18, 14th at 22.
December 14th at all stations.
The day in each month on which a heavy fall of rain was most
general over the county was therefore —
Jan. 14th
Feb. 17th
March 12th
April 24th
May 26th
June 3rd
July 10th
Aug. 23rd
Sept. 23rd
Oct. 30th
Nov. 14th
Dec. 14th
The number of wet days in the year (average of 39 gauges) was
191, being 23 above the mean for the 20 years 1870-89. Of the
total number there were 54 (or 28i °/o) in the winter months,
38 (or 20 %) in the spring, 51 (or 26 J %) in the summer, and
48 (or 25 %) in the autumn.
The average number of wet days in each month, and the
deviation from the mean for the 20 years 1870-89, was as
follows : —
Jan. 22+7
Feb. 16+1
March 10 — 3
April 13 =
May 16 +2
June 14 +1
July 18 +4
Aug. 19+6
Sept. 13 =
Oct. 19 +4
Nov. 16 «
Dec. 17 +1
Distrihution of Rainfall throughout the County. — The following
table (Table lY^ gives the mean fall for each month and for the
year in each oi the five river-districts represented, and in the
two main hydrographical divisions of the county, the catchment-
basins of the Great Ouse and the Thames, and also the difference
in the year from the mean for the decade 1880-89.
Table IV. — Rainfall in the River-districts.
Months.
Cam.
IVBL.
Thamb.
COLNE.
Lba.
OrsB.
Thames.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Jan. ....
1*45
174
1-88
2-59
2*34
1-65
242
Feb. ....
1-56
I 61
165
1*93
I 75
160
i-8i
March
•82
I -06
1*55
2-09
115
•97
156
April
May ....
•89
1-40
136
I -81
I 61
1*23
1-68
1-68
193
I 61
1-96
1-95
1-85
1-93
June
185
1*97
212
206
187
\M
196
July ....
2CI
216
2*39
265
3-58
187
265
263
August
2-85
4-09
2 60
279
y(>i
310
Sept .
1-51
1-82
1-97
1-34
172
I 60
October
251
2*37
371
3-66
303
2-42
3*33
Nov. _
3 '60
4-6i
491
5-10
353
4-27
426
Dec. ....
1-48
I 60
2*11
217
1-86
1-56
200
Tear
2271
26-36
2786
31-47
2587
25-15
22 28
Diff.from
1880-89
-079
+I-09
•
+2-50
+0-32
-fl-62
+114
Digitized by LjOOQIC
188
J. HOPONSON — ^REPOfiT ON THE
The mean rain&ll in each of the minor river-basins or sub-
districts represented, was as follows : —
Cam Rbee
I VEL».„.^. Hiz «...
Thamb..^. Upper Thame
(Bui bourne
Lower Colne «
ins.
22-71
26-36
27-86
29-91
30-79
31-80
32-82
Lba.^
ins.
f MimrAm ,........:
25-72
Beane
25-75
Rib
23-97
Ash
27-74
Upper Lea
24-99
. Lower Lea
27-31
The total yearly fall ranged from 22-57 ins. at Odsey to
34*80 ins. at Moor Park, Rickm ans worth ; and the total monthly
fall from OTOin. at Odsey in March to 5*75 ins. at Kensworth
in November. The greatest fall in any one day was 1*70 in. at
Frogmore, Watford, on the 24th of August.
Bktrihution of Rainfall in each Month. — The nomenclature used
in the following account of the chief falls of rain is the saune as in
my previous reports, falls of at least i inch being styled consider-
abky i inch very considerable, 1 inch 'great, li inch very great, and
H inch heavy. There was no very heavy (l^ inch) or excessive
(2 inches) fall in the year. This analysis only applies to the 35
stations for which I have returns of the daily rainfall.
Januaet. — Rainfall about the average but on an unusually large
number of days, in the form of snow for a few days during the first
week, and for the last day or two. There was a considerable fall of
rain on the 1 4th at two stations (in the Lower Lea district).
Febeuaby. — Eainfall about the average and on the usual number
of davs. There was a considerable fall at twenty-two stations on
the nth.
Maech. — Rainfall a little below the average on a rather small
number of days, nearly all during the first half of the month, only
a very small quantity of rain fdling after the 15th at about half
the number of stations on one or two days. On the 12th there
was a considerable fall of rain at five stations, and on the 1 4th the
fall was considerable at four stations, very considerable at five, and
great (1*07 in.) at Gorhambury.
Apeil. — Also a rather dry month, with rain on the usual number
of days, nearly all during the second half of the month, very little
rain falling before the 14th, and none at some stations. On the
18th there was a considerable fall at one station (Datch worth), and
on the 24th at five stations.
Mat. — Although more rain fell than in either of the previous
three months. May was considerably drier than usual, but with
rather more than the usual number of wet days. On the 10th
there was a considerable fall at one station (Gorhambury), on
the 26th at seven stations, and on the 31st at two (in the Hiz
district).
June. — The fourth month in succession with the rainfall
appreciably below the average, about the usual number of days
being wet. All the rain fell during the Erst three weeks, none
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BAINPALL IN HEBTFORDBHIBE Uf 1894. 139
being recorded at any station after the 20th. On the 6th there
was a considerable fall at five stations (all but one in the Lower
Lea Sistrict).
JuLT. — A wet month, with many rainy days ; rain at most
stations falling every day but one or two for the three weeks
6th to 26th. During a thunderstorm on the 10th the fall of
rain was conMerahle at twenty-five stations, and veiy considerable
at six, the only stations with less than half an inch of rain
being Apsley Mills, Hamels Park, and the Red House and^
Fanhams Hall, Ware. On the 13th the fall was considerable at
one station (Frogmore, Watford), on the 14th considerable at four
stations and veri/ considerable at two, on the 22nd considerable at
three and very considerable at three, and on the 24th considerable
at one (Weston Park).
August. — A very wet month, and, like July, with many rainy
days. No rain fell after the 26th, but up to that date there were
only seven days without rain on the average throughout the county.
During a thunderstorm on the 10th, most violent in the neigh-
bourhood of Hitchin, there was a considerable fall of rain at four
stations, a vert/ considerable fall at one station, and the fall was
great at The Firs, Hitchin (1*06 in.), FairhiU, Berkhamsted,
(1-12 in), and Moor Park (M5in.). On the 16th there was
a considerable fall at one station (Much Hadham). The 23rd,
24th, and 25th were very wet days, the fall of rain averaging
0-69 in. on 23rd, 0'67in. on 24th, and 0-31 in. on 25th, or 1-57 in.
in the three days. On the 23rd the fall was considerable at twenty-
two stations, and very considerable at thirteen, thus being at least
half an inch at all the stations; on the 24th it was considerable
at three stations, very considerable at three, great at Gorhambury
(1-14 in.), Moor Park (1-22 in.), and Brocket Hall (1-22 in.), very
great at High Down, Hitchin (l-32in ), The Grange, St. Albans
(1*42 in.), and Oaklands, Watford (1'45 in.), and heavy at Frogmore,
"Watford (1*70 in.); and on the 25th it was considerable at five
stations, very considerable at one station, and great at Weston
Park (1 -01 in.).
September. — A month with small rainfall, but on the usual
number of days. On the 23rd there was a thunderstorm, with much
rain, in the west of the county, the storm being very violent about
St. Albans, Watford, and Rickmansworth, where much damage
was done to growing crops. The fall, however, only exceeded
half an inch at four stations, being considerable at two (Apsley
Mills, Hemel Hempstead, and The Grange, St. Albans), and very
considerable at two (Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, and Gorham-
bury, St. Albans).
October. — A very wet month with many rainy days, especially
wet towards the end, the last nine days having an aggregate rain-
fall of 2-^38 inches, being an average of rather more than 0-26 in.
per diem. On the 10th the fall was considerable at one station
. (Kens worth), on the 24th considerable at twenty-two and very con^
aider able at one, on the 26th considerable at four, on 28th considerable
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
140 J. HOPKUrSOH — ^THE EAINFALL IN 1894.
at twenty-two, and on the 30th considerable at five, very eonsiderahle
.at sixteen, and great at Oaklands, Watford (1*00 in.), Southgate
(M3in.), and Moor Park (l-20in.).
November. — An excessively wet month, but with rain on only
the usual number of days. All the rain fell during the first three
weeks, except a very sUght fall on one or two days, the last eight
days having an aggregate fall of less than 0-01 in. on the average
throughout the county. On the 7th the fall was eomiderahle at
eleven stations and on the 1 1 th at eight. On the 1 2th it was at least
half an inch at every station but one, being considerable at eight
stations ; very considerable at six ; great at The Grange, St. Albans
(1-04 in.), Therfield Rectory (107 in.). Moor Park (1-1 1 in.),
Gorhambury, St. Albans (I -12 in.), Apdey Mills, Hemel Hemp-
stead (l-14in.), Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead (l'19in.), Brocket
Hall (1-20U1.), and Datchworth Rectory (l'21in.); very great at
Welwyn Rectory (1-25 in.), Odsey (1-30 in.), The Firs, Hitchin
(1-37 in.), Bancroft, Hitclmi (1-45 in.), and Elm House, Tring
( 1*47 in.); and heavy at High Down, Hitchin (1*50 in.), Great
Gaddesden Vicarage (1*52 in.), Weston Park, Stevenage (I '54 in.),
Fairhill, Berkhamsted (1-68 in.), Rosebank, Berkhamsted(l*62in.),
Cowroast (1'68 in.), and Kensworth (1-68 in.). On the 13th there
was a considerable fall at four stations. The 14th was the wettest
day in the year on the average throughout the county, at least half
an inch falling at every station, although the maximum fall did
not quite reach that on the 12th. The fall was considerable at one
station; very considerable at ten stations; great at Bennington
House, Stevenage (100 in.), Odsey (1*02 in.), "Rosebank, Berk-
hamsted (1-02 in.), Bayfordbury, Hertford (1*04 in.), Broxboume
(105 in.), Fairhill, Berkhamsted (1-06 in.), The Firs, Hitchin
(I '07 in.), Throcking Rectory (109 in.), Weston Park, Stevenage
(1*10 in.), Bancroft, Hitchin (1*15 in.), Datchworth Rectory
(119in.), Elm House, Tring (1*20 in.), and Kensworth (1*21 in.);
very great at Oaklands, Watford (1-25 in.), Cowroast (1*33 in.).
Brocket Hall (136 in.). High Down, Hitchin (1-37 in.), Frogmore,
Watford (1-39 in.\ The Grange, St. Albans (1-40 in.), and Welwyn
Rectory (1*40 in.); and hea>vy at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead
(1-53 in.), Gorhambury, St. Albans (1*56 in.), Apsley Mills,
Hemel Hempstead (1*62 in.), and Moor Park (1*68 in.). An
account of the floods caused by the rainfall on this day and the
12th, the climax of a wet period of three weeks, follows this report.
Dbcembeb. — Rainfall about the average, and on about the usual
number of days. On the 14th the fall was at least half an inch
at every station but two, beiag considerable at thirty stations and
very considerable at three.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XVIII.
THE FLOODS OF NOVEMBER, 1894, IN HERTFORDSHIEE.
Uy Joror HoPKiNSOir, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.8oc.
Mead at Watford, 26/A March, 1895.
The immediate cause of the floods which occurred in the South
of England and South Wales in the middle of November, was
a heavy fall of rain which commenced on Monday night the 1 1th,
or Tuesday morning the 12th, and lasted until about mid-day
or rather later on Wednesday the 14th, with one intermission
of considerable duration in most districts. In Hertfordshire there
were two distinct falls: the first commenced about the middle
of the night of the llth-12th and ceased about noon; the second
commenced about the same time in the night of the ldth-14th
and ceased early in the afternoon of the 14th — ceased, that is, as
a heavy fall, for a little rain fell later in the day. On the
morning of the 13th the sky at St. Albans was perfectly cloudless
and the weather was fine throughout the day. Each of these falls
lasted about twelve hours and averaged about an inch and a half.
But the severity of the floods was due in great measure to another
cause, the saturated state of the ground upon which this heavy-
rain fell. From the 1st to the 10th of November there was but
little more than the average rainfall, but during the previous
nine days, October 23rd to Slst, nearly two and a half inches
of rain fell in our county. And it was much the same throughout
the southern half of England and the greater part of Wales.
October and November are usually rather wet months, our
rainfall in October being about three-quarters of an inch above
the average for all the months in the year, and in November being
about one-quarter of an inch above this average, so that we have to
compare an exceptionally wet period with a season which is
usually a wet one, otherwise the following comparisons would
have been much more striking than they are.
During the nine days from October 23rd to 31st the mean
rainfall in Hertfordslnre was 2*38 inches, or an average of
0*265 inch per day, being nearly three times the usual ftdl for
the time of the year; during the ten days from November 1st
to 10th the fall was 1*02 inch, or an average of 01 02 inch per
day, being only 20 per cent, above the usual fall for this period ;
and during the four days from November 11th to 14th the fall
was 2*97 inches, or 0'742 inch per day, being very nearly nine
times the usual daily fall for November. Taking the whole
period of 23 days from October 23rd to November 14th it will
be found that the fall was more than three times the usual
quantity, for this gives an average of 0-277 inch per day against
the usual average for October and November together of 0*088 inch
per day. These comparisons are on the average of 60 years rainfall
in Hertfordshire ending 31st March, 1892.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
142
J. HOPKINSON ^THB FLOODS
Details of the rainfall during the 23 days preceding the floods
at 35 stations in Hertfordshire are given in the following tahle.
The numbers in the first column are those of the river-districts
(see p. 134).
Table I. — Rainfall m Hertfoedshiee, 23ed Octobee to
14th Novembee, 1894.
No.
Station.
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Oct. 23-
23-31
1-10
11-12
13-14
11-14
Nov. 14
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
int.
iiw.
1
Royston
1-69
76
1-34
115
2 '49
4*94
fy
Odsey
Hitchin— The Fire .
1*39
•82
1-64
112
276
497
3
I '57
•92
179
I 32
3"
5'6o
11
,, Bancroft -...
1*62
I -03
1-87
1-41
3-28
5*93
>»
,, High Down
171
1*31
1-91
1-66
3-57
6*59
4
Tring— Elm House
2-89
I -07
196
162
3-58
7-54
6
Cowroast
277
1-36
209
192
401
814
»»
Berkhamsted — Rosebank «...
2*59
1-24
213
1*57
370
7-53
if
FairhiU
2-57
1-36
203
1-59
3-62
7*55
7
Great Gaddesden Vicarage.
H. Hempstead— Apsley Mills
Nash Mills
2*45
I 29
2 -02
1-47
3*49
723
291
2-82
1*31
I '20
1-63
170
207
196
370
3-66
7*92
7-68
8
Kensworth — The Grove
228
1*39
223
176
3*99
7-66
fi
St. Albans — Gorhambury.^
279
1*33
1-64
2 '02
3-66
778
»»
The Grange
2-8i
1-27
1-54
173
327
7*35
10
"Watford — OaUands „
3-08
1-44
1-05
1*45
1-42
1*55
I 59
300
301
779
714
))
,, Frogmore
»»
Rickmansworth— Moor Park
377
1-49
160
1-88
3-48
874
12
Welwyn Rectory
2-27
2-59
•85
•92
170
1-67
174
1-66
3*44
3*33
656
684
})
Hatfield— Brocket Hall
Datch worth Rectory
1-96
I -61
•67
•86
1-62
1-46
1-26
3-o8
317
5-64
13
Stevenage — Weston Park.....
1-91
»»
,, Bennington House
1-83
•69
1*37
123
2'6o
5-12
14
Therfield Rectory
175
•82
1*43
I -14
2*57
514
»»
Throcking Rectory
I 57
•83
I 25
1*31
2-56
4-96
»>
Buntingford — Hamels Park
Much Hadham
171
•64
1-23
I'd
2-24
4*59
16
183
1-03
IXX)
1-22
2-22
5-o8
17
Hertford — Bayfordbury
Ware— Red House „...
2*34
2*33
•82
•92
I -ID
1-03
1*37
113
216
5-63
5*41
yi
,, Fanhams Hall
2-03
•87
I-06
1-40
2 46
536
18
Broxboume— StaffordHouse
2-83
79
1-04
I 23
227
589
»>
Cheshunt — Old Nurseries
2-92
•69
•88
I -02
1-90
5"5i
a
„ College
2-84
•93
•92
I -02
1-94
571
yy
New Bame^^Gas "Works
2*92
73
i-io
105
2-15
580
♦ »
Southgate— The Lawns ....
2-96
I -04
I 19
■68
1-87
5-87
Mean
2-38
I '02
1*53
1*44
2*97
6-37
It will be seen that the distribution of the rain over the county
followed the usual rule, the fall in the west being greater than in
the east. If the rainfall stations were equably distributed, the
mean of their records would represent the true mean rainfall in
the county, and they are very nearly so. It will be well, however,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OF NOVEMBER, 1894, IN HEBTS.
143
to show their numerical relation to the area of the chief river-
basins. The area of Hertfordshire is 633 square miles, but it will
be convenient and suflSciently accurate for my purpose to consider
it to be 630. This area may be approximately divided between
the different river-basins as follows :— Great Ouse (Xos. 1-3), in
the north of the county, 75 square miles ; Thame (No. 4), in the
north-west, 15; Colne (Nos. 6-10), in the west (including a small
portion of the Brent), 210; and Lea (Nos. 11-18), in the east,
330. These areas are in the following ratios: 5, 1, 14, 22. The
number of rainfall stations in the four river-basins is as follows:
Ouse, 5; Thame, 1; Colne, 12; Lea, 17. There are therefore
required, in order to get an exact representation — one rainfall
station to every fifteen square miles — only two more stations in
the basin of the Colne, and five more in that of the Lea. If the
relative areas of the basins are considered, it will be seen that
a result sufficiently accurate for any practical purpose would be
attained if there were two more rainfall stations in the basin
of the Lea.
The mean rainfall in each of the river-basins for the period
under discussion is given in the following table : —
Table II. — Rainfall in the Rivee-basins, 23kd Octobeb to
14th November, 1894.
River -basin.
Area.
Oct.
23-31
Nov.
I-IO
Nov.
11-12
Nov.
13-14
Nov.
11-14
Oct. 23-
Nov. 14
Ouse
Thame
Colne «.
Lea_
Square
miles.
75
15
2IO
Ing.
I 60
2-89
285
225
ini.
0-97
1-07
0-83
ins.
171
1-95
179
1-27
ing.
133
1-62
176
123
Ins.
304
358
3-55
250
inn.
5-61
7 54
771
558
From this table we may get a very near approximation to the
actual mean rainfall in the county by multiplying the rainfall in
each river-basin by its area, adding together the products, and
dividing by the area of the county. The result of this operation
for the four days 11th to 14th Nov. gives a mean for the county
of 2-94 inches, and for the twenty-three days 23rd Oct. to 14th
Nov., a mean of 6*34 inches.
An inch of rain in depth gives a weight of water of 64,636 tons
per square mile (= nearly 101 tons per acre). Therefore, in the
four days 11th to 14th Nov. there fell within the limits of the
county in the river-basin of the Ouse nearly 15 million tons of
water ; in that of the Thame nearly 3i million tons ; in that of
the Colne over 48 million tons; and in that of the Lea nearly
63^ million tons ; giving a total for the whole of Hertfordshire
of nearly 120 million tons. If the mean rainfall as shown in the
first table were taken, the result would be 124^ million tons,
which is greater than the quantity arrived at by taking the results
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
144 J, H0PKIN80H — THE FLOODS
for each river-basin (the more correct method) owing to the largest
basin, that of the Lea, having the smallest rainfall ; but if we take
the corrected mean of 2*94 inches, the result is precisely the same
as that given above, the exact number of tons of water given by
this method being 119,718,799. When we consider that this
gives a daily fall for four successive days of about 30 million tons
of water on a soil already saturated by previous heavy rain, against
an average daily fall in this usually wet month of about 3i million
tons, it is not surprising that the floods to which it gave rise were
of exceptional, if not of unprecedented, severity.
The following account of these floods is compiled from reports
which appeared at the time in three of our County newspapers —
the * Watford Observer,* the * Herts Advertiser,' and the * Hertford-
shire Mercury,' except a short account of an experience of my own*
The river- valleys will be taken in the usual order.
In the valley of the Gade the flood appears to have been the
worst between Apsley End and Boxmoor. The village of Apsley
End was flooded by mid -day on Monday the 12th of November,
the water rising over the kerbing of the footpaths and flowing into
the shops. On Wednesday it had risen so high that the residents
had to remove their furniture upstairs, and the roadway was
impassable except by wading deep in water. At several points
the water in the Grand Junction Canal overflowed the banks and
swamped the adjacent meadows, the football-ground in the Salmon
Meadow presenting the appearance of a group of ponds. At
Apsley Mills operations had to be temporarily suspended owing
to a portion of the works being flooded. At Boxmoor the cellars
of the houses were flooded, and much damage was done to the
extensive water-cress beds in the locality.
In the higher part of the valley of the Colne the brook at
Water End, which during the greater part of the year is simply
a dry water-course, overflowed its banks, and carried down a large
volume of water to Colney Heath near to where it joins the Colne.
At Welham Green, on Wednesday the 14th, the roads were under
water and almost impassable, the water being more than a foot
deep in places. On the afternoon of the following day, wishing
to see something of the effects of the heavy rain in this district,
I walked to North Mimms past Smallford and Colney Heath. A
short distance beyond the ford I found the road submerged to the
depth of nearly two feet, but was able to avoid wading through
the deeper part of the water by going through a cottager's garden
and crossing the water on a plcmk which he had kindly provided
and supported on chairs. My dog would not foUow me, but
waited, yelping, for a passing cart, in which he was taken across
the water. Not wishing to return this way in the dark, I found
that it was necessary to go round by Water End and Mimms
Hall into the London Boad at South Mimms, passing places near
Wan'en Gate where the road was then just under water, but, as
I was informed, had been impassable earlier in the day.
In the valley of the Colne where the river permanently flows,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OP NOVEICBEE, 1894, Hf HEHT8. 145
the floods seem to haye put people to the most serious inconvenience
at Watford. On Monday the 12th, the meadows hordering the
Colne were inundated, and the water flowed into Water Lane and
the lower part of High Street. On Tuesday the water retreated,
hut the floods rose again on Wednesday morning and attained their
highest point ahout midnight, submerging three roads in the town
for several hundred yards. High Street was the most seriously
affected, the water being three feet deep in some parts. The river
rose to within six inches of the girders of the new High Street
bridge. All the houses between the bridge and Dalton House,
where Mr. Schreiber had to remove his dogs for safety from his
stables to the loft, were flooded, as well as those in the courts,
and the workmen were surprised on looking out of their windows
on Thursday morning to see that they would have to make the
first part of their journey to their work by water. Horses and
carts were soon secured and several men were lowered from their
bedroom windows. A boat in which it was intended to row up
High Street was carried away by the flood. In Water Lane the
water extended from a few yards beyond the river to the railway-
arch, and a great part of Loates Lane was also under water, the
fields between being inundated. In the direction of Aldenham the
water was like an inland sea. At ten o^clock on Thursday morning
the waters began to abate, but carts were still busily engaged,
until late in the day, in carrying passengers along the flooded
streets. A few pigs and sheep escaped from the flooded meadows
by swimming, but one sheep and a large number of rabbits
belonging to Mr. Blathwayt, of Frogmore House, were drowned.
Water was pumped out of the cellars of many houses by Messrs.
Sedgwick and Co.*s steam fire-engine.
At the meeting of the Watford Local Board on the same day
(Thursday, 15th Nov.) the Engineer reported as follows: — "The
heavy rains during yesterday caused various parts of the town to
be flooded, notably St. Albans Koad over the railway bridge, the
lower part of Queen* s Road, Merton Road, and Pinner Road. This
morning the river has overflowed its banks and risen above the
underside of the girders of the new bridge, flooding the length
of High Street from the bridge to the mill-tail between two feet
and three feet deep."
Lower down the Colne several low-lying portions of Rickmans-
worth and its vicinity were flooded, most seriously at Batchworth
and West Hyde.
In the valley of the Lea the neighbourhood of Hertford and
Ware suffered most from the floods. The road from Hertford
towards Essendon was rendered almost impassable from Tuesday
the 13th to Thursday the 16th, presenting more the appearance of
a running stream than of a public highway, the water in some
parts of it being three feet deep ; the Brickendon Road was also
flooded to a considerable depth. The Castle Meads, Hartham, and
the King's Meads, were more or less under water, and for miles
along the course of the River Lea its banks were submerged, and
VOL. VIII. — PART VI. 11
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
146 THE FLOODS OP NOVEMBER, 1894.
a great quantity of the adjoining land was flooded. The members
of the Hertford Fire Brigade were engaged on Wednesday evening
in pumping the water out of the basement of Dr. J. T. Tasker-
Evans* residence in Fore Street, which had become flooded owing
to the overflowing of the Gulphs. The water rushed down through
the garden and into Dr. Tasker-Evans' and Mrs. C. Young's
houses, while a stream rushed underneath Dr. Tasker-Evans'
gateway into Fore Street, which for a time became a water-course,
part of the water running down Fore Street and part through
Market Street and Railway Street. In The Folly there appeared
every likelihood of a serious flood; when the gates near the old
waterworks were opened the torrent rushed through, and the strip
of land between the old River Lea and Paper Mill Ditch was sodu
submerged, a portion of the pathway being washed away to the
depth of four feet by the force of the water. At the Lock several
of the pleasure-boats were washed away and were subsequently
found upon the towing-path.
At Ware the cellars of many of the houses in the lower part of
Star Street were flooded during Wednesday night by the rising of
the Barge river, and the cottages in the vicinity of Angel Road
were swamped. The meadows near the river were flooded, and
the water on the towing-path was two or three feet deep. The
road between Dane End and Sacombe Pond for a length of about
a mile and a half was rendered impassable for foot-passengers, the
water in some places being between three and four feet deep.
This is the greatest flood which has occurred in Hertfordshire
since the flood in the valley of the Uade on the 3rd of August,
1879, which was described in our * Transactions * (Vol. I, p. 159)
by the late Mr. J. E. Littleboy, but that was partial, occurring only
in the west of Hertfordshire, while this was general, affecting the
greater part of the county. The heavy rainfall, also, which
immediately preceded the 1879 flood, was confined to the Midland
counties, while on this occasion the fall was excessive over nearly
the whole of the South of England and the whole of Wales except
the extreme north.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XIX.
NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE DURING
THE YEAR 1894.
By Henet Lewis.
Bead at Watford, 26th March, 1895.
It is now nearly eighteen years since the late Mr. J. E. Littleboy
read before the Watford Natural History Society his first paper
on birds, entitled " The Birds of our District," but including some
notes on birds observed in distant parts of Hertfordshire, and since
then a yearly report on the birds observed in our county has been
written, the second of these annual reports being read to the Hert-
fordshire Natural History Society, for the Society had, in 1879,
extended its sphere of influence, and its title, to embrace the whole
of the county. These annual notes on our birds show that for
a long time'a large amount of interest has been taken by many of
our members in this particular branch of Natural History.
One reason for this interest in the study of Ornithology may not
be far to seek to those of us who, perhaps as mere lads, may have
caught the love of Nature, for we may have partaken of the
abounding joy and happiness surrounding us as we wandered forth
in one of our early morning walks amid sylvan scenes on a glorious
May day, so few of which, however, we get in this fickle climate.
It would be vain and fruitless for me to attempt to give a faithful
or perfect description of such a morning, when the sun is rising in
glorious light in the eastern sky. the thirsty earth is teeming with
new life and energy after the refreshing rain, and the balmy air is
resonant with the pleasant hum of insect-life, and with the love-
notes and joy-songs of innumerable happy birds. The eye is
delighted with the beauty of form and colour, and the grace of
movement all around, with the lovely green leaves quivering in
the gentle breeze, and with the meadows rich in varied hues,
every blade of grass decked as it were with a sparkling gem. Th^
beautiful effects of light and shade in the early morning, the
delicate odours of trees and flowers, the rippling murmur of
running water, the graceful flight of the swallow, the lazy caw
of the rook, the laugh of the woodpecker, the gambol of squirrels,
the coo of wood- pigeons, the call of the cuckoo, and the song of
the nightingale, aU help to increase the charm.
How cheerless would our land be without the birds ! A scientific
writer, in speaking of the destruction of the dinomis, has said that
the destruction of the individual is unimportant, but the destruc-
tion of the type is a crime. Yet as matters go now, unless some
stringent measures are taken, most of the birds of Europe will in
the next century be as extinct as is now the dinomis. In an
article on ** Birds and their Persecutors,'* in the January number
of the * Nineteenth Century,' *'Ouida" says that "the craze for
devouring birds of all kinds is a species of fury from the Alps
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
148 H. LEWIS— NOTES ON BIRDS
to Etna," and maintams that " unless birds be protected in Italy
they must perish all over Europe, since so great a Tariety of races
wing their way to the south in winter** As "Ouida** also says
that " it is admitted by all who know anything of the subject that
agriculture would be impossible without the aid of birds, as the
larvae and developed insects of all kinds would make a desert of
the entire area of cultivated land,** I think it well and quite within
my province to direct the attention of the members of our Society
to such an important question, especi«dly as the craze of fashion
has even in our own land filled many a shop window with the
wretched remnants and barbarous spoils of bird-life.
I am unable in this report to make any additions to the list of
birds which have been observed in our county, but, through the
kindness of the Honourable Walter Rothschild, I have been favoured
by Mr. E. Hartert, in his name, with some interesting note« on
birds (some rare) which have been obtained in the Tiing district
during the past year, specimens of all of which are to be found in
the Tring Museum.
Grey Wagtail {MotaciUa melanope). — This graceful little bird
was seen by Mr. Hartert in December, 1894, near the Rt^servoirs.
My own acquaintance with this wagtail is but slight. For some
years I have noticed the arrival of the long-tailed wagtails on the
banks of our river Ver. They seem plentiful this winter. Mr.
Alaa F. Grossman, of St. Cuthbcrt's, Berkhamsted, wrote to
me in the winter: ** During this hard weather I have seen
sevei-al grey wagtails ; the bird seems to be a fairly common
winter visitor to this part of Herts.'* It runs, with a buoyancy and
lightness unsurpassed in my opinion by that of any other of our
wagtails, after the insects which are its food, often alighting on the
floating weed, as it passes along, then flying off in graceful dips,
uttering **chiz-zit, chiz-zit** either when flying or when alighting
on the trees overhanging the watiT. The late Mr. Frank Buck-
hmd said: **The wagtails have different calls. The call of the
black-and-white wagtail is * physic, physic, physic* . . Listen to
the first wagtail you hear, and you will find that he invokes the
aid of the medical profeSvsion.** (* WTiite's Selbome,* with notes by
Frank Buckland, p. 301.) Mr. Dresser (* Birds of Europe,' vol. iii,
p. 251) states that ** In Great Britain it is, as a species, a per-
manent resident, though individually a partial migrant ** ; and our
President, Mr. Henry Seebohm (* British Birds,* vol. ii, p. 203),
says : ** The grey wagtail is sparingly distributed throughout
England and Wales, breeding in the mountainous districts and
migrating into the lower valleys and into the plains for the
winter.** I generally notice its arrival here in autumn, but Mr.
Littleboy alludes to the nesting of this species at the Tring
Kescrvoirs.
Crossbills {Loxia curvirostra), — Some of these birds were seen
and shot in the woods at Tring in December, 1894, and January,
1895. In Mr. Littloboy's register I find it recorded that early in
the year 1879 a flock of these birds frequented the Gorhambury
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSEBYED IN HEBTS IN 1894. 149
Woods between St. Michaels and the London and North Western
station. Probably this was the same year that I received specimens
of these birds from the boys of the town, who had procured them
in Verulam Woods. Mr. Grossman writes : "On January the
27th (1895), I saw a flock of about fifty common crossbills in a
wood about three-quarters of a mile from Berkhamsted, just on the
borders of the county. I was first attracted by the note * gip, gip,'
which I am well acquainted with, and just as I perceived them
they flew over my head and circled round and settled. I got
nearly underneath a larch tree on which a small party of them
settled, and I had a very good view of them through my field-
glasses. In this small party there was one orange-tinted bird, and
the rest were either crimson or green, one of the latter being very
dull-coloured. They were feeding on the cones of the larch, and
their mode of procedure was to break off a cone and carry it to a
stronger branch and there peck it over and then drop it. I picked
up several of these cones that had been dropped, and examined
them, and found that they were very slightly pulled about, some
of their leaves being split up. I heard one of the birds singing :
the song is sweet, but not loud, some parts of it being like the song
of a robin, sweeter, though not so loud. The attitude of these
birds when feeding (sometimes hanging with the head downwards*)
is very like that of a parrot or a titmouse."
CiRL Bunting {Emherka cirlm). — During the year 1894 several
pairs of these birds were observed in spring and summer near
Tring. Dresser (iv, 179-182) says that this bunting **i8 par-
ticularly abundant in the Isle of Wight" ; and also that Naumann
states that ** It frequents the same kind of places as the yellow
bunting, such as the bushy banks of stre^ims, meadows, and hedges,
small groves in mountainous districts, in the neighbourhood of fields
and gardens." ** In England," Dresser also says, "it is gregarious
in winter, and may be observed in flocks on the southern coast."
The Raven {Corvus cor ax). — Mr. Hartert writes: ** A raven
was caught in the woods above Tring by a village boy, in the
middle of October. He saw the bird on a branch and crept close
enough to hit it on the head with a stone, which only bedazzled
it, but did not kill it. When we got it first it was rather quiet,
but became wilder afterwards. The bird did not show signs of
having been in captivity, and it seems inexplicable what made
such a wary bird so foolish that it could be thrown over with a
stone. A dead raven was found by Mr. Minall, the museum's
taxidermist, in the same woods on the 26th of December. It was
haK rotten and only fit for a skeleton.'* Some of us may remember
the interesting account Mr. Hooper gave us of the raven in his
report for the year 1889. From this bird's wide distribution we
may hope that it would escape the fate, which in these days befalls
so many species of birds, of becoming extinct, or nearly so, through
the agency of man, possessing as it does a very ancient if not
honourable history, and associated as it is with the cherished beliefs
of many nations.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
150 H. LEWIS — ^NOTES OK BIRDS
Mr. Seebohm (* British Birds,' vol. i, p. 532) says : " The raren,
once so famous in fable, and held by the ancients in such respect as
a bird of destiny, is now rapidly becoming scarce in England ....
almost the only places where a few scattered pairs are found are the
bold rocky headlands of our coasts, in districts little frequented by
man, where the bird, gifted as it is with no small amount of sagacity
and prudence, is able still to maintain its ground. But slowly and
surely these English ravens are passing away ; their deserted eyries
possess only historical interest; and the day is probably not far
distant when it can no longer be counted as an English bird.'* Mr.
Dresser (iv, 573) states that ** As a rule the raven is a shy, cautious
bird, as crafty and clever amongst birds as the fox is amongst
quadrupeds. . . Amongst the early Scandinavians," he adds, ** the
raven was looked on as possessing wisdom to a peculiar extent ; and
in the Sagas it is related that Odin possessed two ravens which
traversed great distances, and, returning to their master, whispered
into his ears the information they had gained during their journey."
Bittern {Botaurus stellar is).— The Hon. Walter Rothschild in-
forms me that an adult bittern was shot on the Reservoirs, in
December, 1894. From Mr. Littleboy's register I gather that
a nest with four eggs was taken at one of the reservoirs in 1849
by the Rev. James Williams. Dresser (vi, 282) informs us that
** it is now merely a rare straggler [to England] and no longer
breeds here." Three of these rare birds have been obtained in
this county which have never been recorded in our * Transactions.'
One was brought to me alive some years since, wounded in the
wing. It was shot near St. Albans. The other two were shot
near a small pond close to the late Mr. Thrale's house at No-Man's-
Land. Dresser (vi, 285) remarks of the bittern: ** When winged
or wounded it is by no means an easy task to get hold of it ; for
it defends itself with great pluck and determination, throwing
itself back and using bill and claws as weapons of defence, and
I have seen a dog get considerably the worst of it in an attack
on a wounded bird." Mr. Seebohm (* British Birds,* vol. ii, p.
502) says: *' There are about five-and- twenty species of bitterns,
which are distributed throughout the world, except in the ex-
treme north. Two species are European, both of which are very
rare residents in the British Islands, and a third has repeatedly
visited our islands from the American continent." This bird,
from its habit of choosing solitary swamps and dismal morasses,
is intimately associated in our minds with aU that is desolate
and forsaken.
The Teal {Querquedula erecca). — This little duck, Mr. Hartert
says, was observed ** in flocks on the Reservoirs at the end of
December and beginning of January."
The Shoveller {Spatula clypeata\ Pochard {FuUgula ferina),
and Tufted Duck (F. cristata). — These ducks, Mr. Hartert writes,
** were shot on the Reservoirs at different times during the shooting-
season." " The range of the shoveller," Dresser (vi, 498) states,
** is very extensive .... Though more particularly a fresh-water
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSERTEB IN HEBTS IN 1894. 151
duck, still the shoveller is met with not unfrequently on the coast.**
This bird nests at the Eeservoirs. The pochard, Dresser (vi, 603)
says, "frequents both the sea-coast and inland waters, and obtains
its food chiefly under the surface of the water. It is consequently
an expert diver and able to remain below for some time, and to
swallow its food when under water." The tufted duck is stated
by Dresser (vi, 574) to be, " as a rule, only a winter visitant " in
Great Britain.
Golden-Eye {Clangula gJaucion), — Mr. Hartert says that the
golden-eye " was seen in flocks on the Reservoirs at the end of
December, 1894, and the beginning of January, 1895." Dresser
(vi, 595) says of this bird that ** In Great Britain it is known only
as a winter visitant. Mr. Grey says that it probably breeds
occasionally in Sutherlandshire, as specimens have been obtained in
that county as late as the end of May. It frequents the sea-coast,
and appears to obtain its food chiefly under water, being a most
expert diver, so much so that it will dive at the flash when fired at.
When undisturbed it sits rather lightly on the surface of the water,
but when alarmed can swim so low that the back is only just
shown above the surface of the water."
Woodcock {Scolopax rustteula), — '* Woodcocks were seen more
often than during the last few years," so Mr. Hartert writes. This
must be welcome news to those of us who have tasted woodcock
(and who has not ?). It is to be hoped that some of these winter
visitors may prolong their visits into the nesting-season, as they
have previously done. Mr. Littleboy reported that woodcocks
**have once or twice nested in Tring Park"; and from Dresser
(vii, 623) we learn that in Germany ** it is supposed to make
its first appearance on the so-called * Occuli ' Sunday (the third
Sunday in Lent), which is usually termed Woodcock Sunday."
I alluded in a former report to the habit this bird possesses of
carrying its young, which it does from the wood to the swamp
to feed, as well as in case of danger.
This completes the report from the Tring district.
Miscellaneous I^otes.
Bebbbeast {JSrithacus ruhecula). — On the 28th of August I
received two dead robins, picked up by Mr. Ashwell in his garden
at The Priory, St. Albans. They were found about fifteen yards
from each other. He had separated them only a short time before,
and they must have succumbed to the injuries they received whilst
engaged in mortal combat. They were both severely pecked about
the head, the injuries being quite sufficient to account for their
death. One bird had a much duller- coloured breast than the other.
I have often been asked the question, ** Do the young robins kill
the old ones?" Mrs. Brightwen (*Wild Nature Won by Kind-
ness,* p. 194) observes: ** Every robin fights his neighbour all
the year through, except when paired and busy with domestic
duties." Yarrell (* British Birds,' vol. i, p. 306) tells us that after
their annual moult, ** The old birds, then in renewed vigour,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
152 H. LEWIS — ^NOTES OK BIRDS
proceed to engage the young, and each lawn and thicket becomes
a battle-field; but so far from the vulgar belief of the latter
destroying the former being well founded, the young are almost
invariably worsted, and possession remains with the victorious
parents."
Wood- Ween {PhyJloseopus sihilatrix), — ^Mr. Alan F. Grossman
informs me that in May or June last year, whilst riding through
Ashridge Park and across Berkhamsted Common, he noticed that
the wood- wren ** was fairly plentiful, there being a bird singing
in most of the clumps of beeches."
Ween {Troglodytes parvulm). — On one occasion during a hard
frost, when walking along a lane, I chanced to see a wren on the
hedge-bank actively engaged, and I wondered how the little
creature managed to exist during such cold weather. However,
the bird soon found two or three larvae (they looked like wire-
worms) which I noticed in its bill. I searched in vain myself
for any.
Starling (Stumus vulgaris), — Mrs. Kember, of Harpenden, on
the 6th of Kovember, 1894, reported having seen ** not long since,"
near Harpenden, one of those wondrous gatherings of starlings
which occasionally take place.
C[jcKoo {Cuculus canorus), — ^From the reports and correspondence
which have appeared both in the * Zoologist * and the * Field '
newspaper of last year, there can be no doubt that the cuckoo
visited this country at an unusually early date. The lovely
weather we experienced in March appears to have tempted that
wonderful bird, ** a March cuckoo," to pay us a visit.
Wild Duck {Anas boscas). — Immense flocks of birds, probably
of different species, passed over St. Albans at different times during
the month of December. Mr. Coles, Worley Street ; Mr. Gamer,
Christ Church ; Mr. Pelley, and others, called my attention to the
fact, and asked me if I had seen them. Amongst them I noticed
wild duck passing over, and Mr. Coles did the same.
Pochard {Fuligula ferina), — Mr. T. V. Roberts^ in a letter dated
22nd January, 1894, says: **Last Saturday afternoon, when walking
by the Colne below Hamper Mills, I saw four ducks on the water.
They took to flight as I approached, three disappearing, the fourth
flying heavily for a short distance. Overtaking, I got quite close
to the last-mentioned bird, and found that it was a pochard. It
was much distressed and had evidently been wounded, ^'o doubt
its companions were of the same species."
Puffin {Fratercula arctica), — Mr. Martin, a local taxidermist,
showed a puffin to me which had been picked up alive in St. Albans
on the It'^th of November.
Albinism. — Mr. H. Sexton reports that just below Kidge Hill
he observed on the 5th of October a blackbird {Turdus merula)
with a white patch of feathers on its back.
I have received reports of rare birds having been picked up
alive or shot during the severe frost experienced at the beginning
of this year, which must appear in the next annual report.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
0B8EETBD IV HERT3 DT 1894.
153
The following is a list of dates on which the arrival and
departure of some of our suniiner migrants and winter visitors
have been reported : —
Stthker Miobants.
Spbcibs.
Whbatbab
{i!iaxicola oenanthi)
KiGUTINOALB
{DauHa$ luteinia)
LOCALITT.
Harpenden Eoad,
St. Albans
St. Albans „..
Newberries, Radlett
Symonds Hyde,
Hatfield
Berkhamsted
Harpenden
Waiford
Odsey, Ash well ^
St. Albans
St. Albans
St. Albans
Whitbthroat .^
{Sylvia citurea) (Last seen)
Blackcap
{Sylvia atrieapiUa)
Chipf-Chaff St. Albans
{Phylloieoput ruftu)
Datb.
Sept. 3...
April \0^
„ 10-.
„ 16...
„ 16.
„ 17..
„ 17.
„ 15.
Sept. 15.
April 29.
Willow-Wrbn -..
{FhyUotcoput trochilu*)
Sbdob-Warblbb -
{Acrocepkalu* phragmitit)
G&A8SHOPP BR- W ARBLB&
{LoeuMtella navia)
Yellow "Wagtail
{Motaeilla Eaii)
Trbb-Pipit
(Anthu9 trivialis)
Spotted Flycatcher..,
{Muwicapa gi-iwla)
(Last seen)
Swallow
{Hirundo rtutiea)
Mar. 23..
Newberries, Radlett ,, 26..
Hitchin _ „ 26...
Newberries, Radlett April 8..
St. Albans .« „ 8..
Rickmansworth ,, 11..
St. Albans May 6..
Obsbrtbr.
.C. Dickinson.
.Mrs. Hopkinson.
.MissE.M.Lubbock.
...T. Brown.
-Mrs. E. Mawley.
.J.J.Willis.
..Mrs. Bishop.
..H. G. Fordham.
..H. L.
...H. L.
..H. L.
...Arthur Lewis.
...MissE.M.Lubbock.
.J. E. Little.
-MissE.M.Lubbock.
„.H. L.
...A. Sainsbury Verey.
...H. L.
Loud water, Rick
mansworth
Symonds Hyde,
Hatfield ».» April 16.
Harpenden _.-« May 6.
St. Albans „.. „ 13.
Rickmansworth April 11.
Harpenden Road,
St. Albans „ 20.
St. Albans „ 8.
Mar. 24...-T. Hope.
(Last seen)
Berkhamsted
Newberries, Radlett
Harpenden Road,
St. Albans ^....
Odsey, Ash well.....
Oaklands, St. Albans
Odsey
Harpenden
Berkhamsted
Watford.
Hitchin .
St. Albans ...„ „
Two Waters, Hemel
Hempstead
Ware
Newberries, Radlett
Odsey, Ashwell „.
Symonds Hyde,
Hatfield
Berkhamsted ^
„ 20.
May 16..
„ 18-
„ 20..
„ 25..
Aug. 30.
April 4.
» 7.
„ lU
„ 12..
M 15..
„ 17.
» 17.
„ 19.
„ 21.
„ 24.
Oct. 23.,
...T. Brown.
...J. Lewis.
...H. L.
...A. Sainsbury Verey.
...A. Dickinson.
...H. L.
...Mrs. E. Mawley.
.-MissE.M.Lubbock.
...Mrs. C. Dickinson.
...H. G. Fordham.
...H. L.
...H. G. Fordham.
...J. J. Willis.
...Mrs. E. Mawley.
- D. Little.
...J. E. Little.
.„F. Hibbert.
.-T. Hope.
...Arthur Lewis.
...MissE.M.Lubbock.
„.H. G. Fordham.
-.T. Brown.
-Mrs. E. Mawley.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
154
H. LEWIS — BIHD8 0B8EBYED IN 1891.
Species.
Swallow (Last seen"
{Hirtmdo ruatica) ,,
House- Martin
{C/telidon urbica) (Last seen)
Sand -Martin
(Cottle riparia)
Swift
{Cypselm apiu)
(Last seen)
Nightjar ^
{Caprimulgus europaus)
"Wryneck
{Ij/nx torquilla)
Cuckoo
[Cueulus canontt)
Turtle-Dote
{Turtur communis)
Landrail „„
{Crex pratenais)
Redwing
{Turdtt9 iliacus)
Fieldfare
{Turdu* pilatHs)
Woodcock
(Scolopax ru9ticula)
Locality.
, Ash well
St. Albans
Odsey, Ashwell
Odsey, Ashwell ..„
St. Albans
Ware
St. Albans
Odsey, Ashwell
St. Albans
Odsey, Ashwell
High Down, Hitchin
Harpenden Eoad,
St Albans
St. Albans
Kickmans worth ...
SteTenage (from
newspaper) ...„««.
Arkley, near Bamet
BricketWood
Newbenies, Radlett
Watford
St. Albans
Berkhamsted
Harpenden
Symonds Hyde,
Hatfield
Hitchin „
Odsey, Ashwell
Odsey, Ashwell
Park Street
King's Langley
Date. Observer.
Oct. 27.....H. G. Fordham.
„ 28 Monckton \Vhit«.
April 30_.H. G. Fordham.
Oct. 3.....H. G. Fordham.
,, 28„...A. Dickinson.
April 17..... Arthur Lewis.
May 6.....H. L.
„ 10....H. G. Fordham.
Aug. 25... H. L.
Sept. 7.... H. G. Fordham.
July 1 John Hopkinson.
April 8 Mrs. C. Dickinson.
„ 8....H. L
, , 1 3 A.. Sainsbury Verey.
Mar. 22«..Rev. — Ruddock.
April 3 H. R. Potter.
„ 7..... J. Bamforth.
„ 7.....Miss E M.Lubbock.
„ 8....D. Hill.
„ 8.....Mr8. C. Dickinson.
„ 8...»Mr8. E. Mawley.
„ 8_J. J. Willis.
„ 9_.T. Brown.
„ ll.„..J. E. Little.
„ 11.....H. G. Fordham.
May 4.....H. G. Fordham.
April 28.....T. Hope.
„ 28_.T. Hope.
Winter Visitobs.
St. Albans Sept. 26-... A. Dickinson.
St. Albans „ _ „ 17...H. L.
St. Albans „ 23...„F. Dickinson.
In conclusion allow me to thank those ladies and gjentlemen who
have 80 kindly supplied me with observations, information, and
records of various kinds, both for this paper as well as on former
occasions. I am happy to inform our members that Mr. Alan
Fairfax Grossman, of St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted, has consented
to occupy the position I am now resigning as Kecorder of Aves.
May I ask our members who have any observations on birds they
may make, or information they may obtain of rare birds visiting
our county, to forward the same to Mr. Grossman.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XX.
NOTES ON BIRDS FREQUENTINa THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF
HERONSGATE, HERTS.
By A. Saiksbuky Vekey, Memb. Brit. Ornithologists' XTnion.
Head at Watford, 26/A March, 1895.
The ways of birds are in many respects our ways. Acted upon
by the same exteraal influences, swayed by the like impulses and
emotions, belittled by frailties in common with ourselves, no sooner
do we set foot within the borders of Birdland than we feel ourselves
irresistibly attracted to the observation of its inhabitants.
Troubles are to be met with in Birdland, yet how transient are
they ! Hard enough are the times when frost and snow usurp the
sway, but they are short, and when winter gives place to spring
the only hard time for our birds is at an end.
Frailties exist in Birdland. What could better exemplify this
fact than the behaviour of a missel-thrush who came flying in hot
haste to the tree under which I was standing one evening last
summer, and then coursed madly round it, screaming to his utmost
bent ? It was difficult at first to discover what his trouble was,
but soon an explanation was afforded, for shortly another bird
appeared, making her way towards him, slowly and wearily. No
rest for her, however, for, seeing her, he at once resumed his
journey, leaving her to follow him as best she could. And the
explanation seemed to be that they had been spending the day
far from their usual resting-place and stUl had some distance to
go, and that she, tired as she was, did not make sufficient haste
to please him.
And again, I can almost hear even now the querulous screeching
of an Ul-conditioned barn-owl who flew across the path which
I was pursuing in the dusk oi evening, also last summer, making
the air resonant with his cries. I stopped to watch him as he took
his flight towards some hiQy ground, crested by a wood. But he
had not gone far when an answering cry came from the direction of
the wood, and soon another owl appeared in sight ; then he abruptly
turned round, and, still screaming as loudly as ever, retraced his
flight, taking good care, however, to keep some considerable dis-
tance from his partner. It seemed evident that something had
gone wrong in the house of the owls, and the distempered bird had
come out to put it right. It could not have been a matter of
selecting a mate, for it was too late in the season.
Deeds of emprise are performed in Birdland. Observe the
sparrows as they fight promiscuously, fluttering about on the
ground. It might appear that they are only engaged in a game
of **peck who peck can," but there is method in the mad conflict,
for they are obeying one of the laws of Nature. Of course there
is a lady in the case, and now, in a momentary cessation of hos-
tilities', she creeps towards the one most favoured in the combat|
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
156 A. 8. VERET — ^NOTES ON BIRBS
encouraging him to further valour. Now retiring, the battle again
rages, until at length the victor is proclaimed, the award is made,
and the vanquished fly off, apparently as self-satisfied as sparrows
can be. And the reason for the battle was, as I have said, the
observance of one of Nature's laws, — the selection and survival
of the fittest.
Courtship is to be studied in Birdland. Out in the field, and
perched upon a rail-fence, a rook with tail expanded is propelling
himself painfully to and fro, and as now and again he gives vent
to low and laboured groans, one might imagine him to be in the
throes of immediate dissolution. Yet there is meaning in his
behaviour : he is striving to attain an object ; for, ludicrous as it
aU appears to us, grace and attraction are evinced in every antic,
poetry and music also in those weird utterances, passing sweet and
full of import to the dusky lady sitting arbitrative upon his fate.
And soon his reward comes to him ; love, the gauge thrown down,
and love as quickly taken up again. Then away he flies with his
bride to the tree top whereon his nest will be rudely swayed, and
for cradle-song the wild, hard wind of spring will shriek a lullaby,
fit rearing-place for his hardy brood.
And pathos is to be met with in Birdland. Yearly, when I am
gathering strawberries in my garden, just in front of me a fragile
feathered form flutters timorously from her nest under one of the
plants, and then, scarcely out of reach, flits around me on the
ground, as, with palpitating breast and plaintive cry, she upturns
her eyes beseechingly to mine, hoping, yet gravely doubting, that
the shrine of her affections may escape unravished.
Birdland, in these and many other interesting aspects, may be
profitably studied at Heron sgate, near Rickmansworth. The fol-
lowing are a few observations which I have made on the habits of
some of the more familiar birds which frequent this neighbourhood.
The Whitethroat {Sylvia cinerea), — I was very much interested
last summer in the behaviour of a whitethroat, and could but
regard it as an instance of protective mimicry. I had found her
nest with eggs, and stooped over it, watching the bird as it glided
off into the surrounding brambles. Then, and all at once, she
adopted the motions of a dormouse, and so admirably did she play
the rdle that — aided, as naturally she was, by the dense brush —
had I not known it to be the bird, it would have been difficult
indeed to determine it to be anything but a mouse. Never for
a moment still, but gliding swiftly along the branches and twigs
after the manner of the animal, she made no use whatever of her
wings, which were kept closely pressed to the body, but, when
arrived at the end of one twig, she would spring to another in a
perfectly mouse-like way. Very often she was quite close to me,
yet her movements were so rapid and confusing to the eye, and
the part she had elected to play was so cleverly perform^, that
at any other time the deception might well have been complete.
The Grasshopper- Warbler {Locuatella navt'a). — The grasshopper-
warbler, a distant relative of the Dartford warbler of our southern
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
FEEQUENTINe HEBONSOATB, HERTS. 157
heaths, and equally gorse -loving in its habits, seems, however, to
prefer the stunted oaks and solitary hawthorn bushes there to be
met with from which to pour forth its curious song. There is
no other bird coming under my observation that yields itself more
completely to the tender passion. When standing on one side
of a bush, I have watched a pair of these birds engaged in
their love-passages on the other side, and quite indifferent
to my proximity; the male singing all the while to his mate,
and imparting to his wings that peculiar tremulous movement
characteristic of the bird. And it is very interesting when, a
little later in the season, one has again had the good fortune to
trace the song to its source, to mark the artifice of the little bird.
Even when this has been accomplished, however, it is by no means
easy to discover the bird, for love being a thing of the past, it
becomes more wary. But presently, guided by the upturned bead-
like eyes, it is discovered crouching low upon a fork near the
ground, its olivaceous plumage exactly resembling the surroundings.
After watching one for a time, I have made a feint to look aside,
when, instantly, the bird dropped like a stone to the ground, and
then, threading its way through the rank grass in a mouse-like
manner, it emerj^ed at a point furthest from danger, and, flying
off to another bush, recommenced its song. If there be any meaning
in the song of a bird, and, indeed, I believe there is a very great
deal, its notes were then, undoubtedly, those of self-approval and
congratulation that the cunning displayed had so successfully
outwitted the intruder.
The Hedge- Spareow {Accentor moduletris). — A curious instance
of receptivity in a bird came to my notice a year or two ago. One
morning — I think it was early in March — I was surprised to hear,
quite close to me, the trill uttered by the tree-pipit when flying
upward from its perch on the topmost branch of a tree. IJpon
looking about for the cause, I saw a hedge-sparrow sitting upon
a shed and singing these notes. Much interested, I waited to hear
if the bird had also acquired the song of the pipit when in
downward flight, but that apparently formed no part of its
repertoire.
The Goldfinch ( Chrysomitris elegans). — Alone among the finches,
unless, indeed, the allied species the siskin {Chrysomitris spintts)
affects the same habit, the goldfinch feeds its young with par-
tially-digested food from its crop. And, from very careful study
of the bird, I am induced to think that the food consists solely
of various seeds, in this respect differing from that of the young of
other finches, the parent birds in their case supplying them with
a large proportion of insect-food. If it be really a fact that seeds
only are fed to its young by a goldfinch, the reason of this
apparently abnormal method of administering the food becomes
easily understood, because the dry hard seeds would, necessarily,
require some degree of preparation before being submitted to the
feeble digestive powers of the young birds.
The Chappinch {Fringilla Calebs), — An interesting nest of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
158 A. 8. VEKET — ^irOTES OK BIEDS
chaffinch was found by a hedger last summer, and Mr. Hughes, of
The Swillet, called my attention to it. A hollow piece of stone-
ware had been thrown into a hedge, and, lodging in the centre,
the birds had made choice of it as a foundation for their nest.
The man carried the nest in to show Mr. Hughes, and, after he
had replaced it, the birds took to it as before. The circumstance
suggests the thought that the chaffinches may have considered
that the safety of their nest would be better assured by making
the choice they did, particularly as the hedge was close to a
highway and also to a field-path ; but, if so, their hopes were
doomed to disappointment, for, after the young were hatched,
they were discovered by the marauding and too evident boy, and,
alas ! destroyed.
The Bullfinch {Pyrrhula europaa). — Hard words are often
spoken against the bullfinch, and if the matter rested there,
** Bullie " would not be ruffled by so much as a feather. Unfortu-
nately, however, powder and shot are too often resorted to by
way of settlement. Nevertheless a little fact speaks for itself.
In the early part of last spring I noticed that the bullfinches were
exceedingly busy among the gooseberry-bushes in my garden, yet
there was afterwards a magnificent crop of fruit, so good, indeed,
as to excite the admiration of my neighbours, many of whom came
to see it.
It is very amusing to watch my bullfinches of a winter's evening.
One portion of the hedge surrounding the garden terminates
in a bushy growth of Salix capreea, and there nightly at
dusk the birds assemble before betaking themselves to a wood
adjacent, where apparently they roost at night. I can only suppose
that it is their time for relaxation after the serious business of
the day, and that, so met together, the news current in Birdland
is fully discussed, and many indeed and anxious must be the
forecasts of the weather, a very weighty subject with these
children of the wild, and perhaps the only one that ever seriously
obscures the horizon of their lives. The bullfinch is exceedingly
partial to the berries of the privet when mellowed by frost, and
it also eats those of the woody nightshade {Solatium dulcamara),
Yellow-Hammer {Emheriza citrinella). — The yellow-hammer is
very partial to strawberry-plants as nesting-sites in my garden.
The nest is placed close to the roots of the plants and is well
concealed by the foliage, and I usually have one, and frequently
more, every season. 1 once found a nest of this species placed
in an ash sapling some five or six feet from the ground.
Thk Rook {Corvus frugilegus), — The term ^'frugilegm^^ — fruit-
gatherer — applied to the rook, seems at first sight to be somewhat
undeserved, and I have seen it criticized and even ridiculed in print.
Nevertheless the bestowal of the epithet is evidence of very
correct observation of the habits of the rook on the part of its
sponsor. I myself have seen it feasting upon cherries, curiously
enough preferring them before they were ripe. Notwithstanding
this, such instances are so infrequent as to appear to be merely
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
FREQX7ENTIN0 HEBONSGATE, HEBTS. 159
aberrant behaviour on the part of the rook, for it is pre-
eminently and inseparably a bird of the soil, and one to which
a^cnlture owes much. Before the frost set in, and when the
plough was busily at work, a vast assemblage of rooks collected
in the fields near here, and I was much impressed by the important
help the friendly birds were rendering to the farmer by freeing
the ground of harmful grubs. The flock, at a low computation,
must have numbered some 500 or 600 individuals, and if we
estimate the probable amount of food consumed by each at only
half-a-pint a day — and the bird has a very voracious appetite —
it becomes evident that the rook is a factor of very considerable
importance in the economics of agriculture. So that, under all
the circumstances, and although the epithet *^frugilegm " is not
entirely undeserved, I have come to think that a better term
might and should be devised for our friend the rook ; because
it is very invidious thus to record the fact of his occasional
deviations from an ordinarily strict rule of conduct, and truly
ungracious to fasten this name upon him, overlooking his claim
to acknowledgment for good honest services rendered, and keeping
him in our remembrance only as the ** fruit-gatherer."
The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker {Dendrocapus minor), — This
species is by far the commonest of the three woodpeckers at
Heronsgate. It is very difficult to approach, and, although
frequently heard, is not so often to be seen, but this is sometimes
to be done by creeping up to the tree. When disturbed it may
be observed flying off to the wood. It seems to have a great
partiality for oaks on the outskirts of woods, its preference for
those trees being duo probably to the fact that the rough bark
being full of holes and crevices affords a better return in insect-
food than is the case with other trees having smooth bark.
The Gkeen Woodpecker (Gecinus viridia), — This species occurs
occasionally on the highest ground where the soil is light and
sandy, attracted no doubt by the ants' nests, the ** eggs" in which
form a not inconsiderable part of this woodpecker's diet. Some
fragments of the eggs of this species were brought to me for
determination last summer, the parent bird having been seen
by the ubiquitous boy to enter a hole in a birch tree, whereupon
he climbed up and found the nest.
The Hen- Harrier {Circus cyan&us), — Hill, the keeper of the
shooting about here, tells me that he often sees a strange hawk,
but that it is too wary for him to shoot it. From his description,
** blue on the back," " with white feathers above the tail," the bird
seems pretty clearly referable to the hen-harrier ( Circus cyaneus).
It may be, of course, although less probably, Montagu's harrier
{Circus cineraceus)y but that could only be determined with the
bird in hand — not that I am at all desirous of doing so. The
presence of a few individuals of our rarer species of hawks might
well be encouraged, for by reason of their extreme scarcity they
could never appreciably interfere with the preservation of game,
and a little protection afforded them would not seriously conflict
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
160 BIBDS FREQUENTING HEBONSeATE.
with any existing interests. Still there is much to be said for the
gamekeeper. A servant only, it is true, his position is neTertheless
an exceedingly responsible, anxious, and arduous one, and, with
every man's hand against him, too often a very dangerous one.
'Not so very long ago, an old friend of mine was cruelly and
cowardly assailed in the woods round here, and but for assistance
opportunely arriving, would in all probability have been very
seriously injured. I am glad to find that many keepers take
an interest in bird-life, destroying only those birds which are
destructive to their charges, and I gladly avail myself of this
opportunity to acknowledge their readiness at all times to converse
upon wild nature. Keeper Hill also informs me that a buzzard
{BuUo vulgaris) has made its home in our woods, and that he
frequently meets with the bird.
The Spaerow-Hawk {Accipiter nisus) — Keeper Hill related to
me an instance of solicitude in a domestic hen. He told me that
as he was one day walking beside a hedge his attention was
attracted by the cries of a hen. Upon looking through the hedge,
he saw the hen in the midst of her chickens, struggling with
something on the ground, which he at first supposed to be a stoat,
but which afterwards proved to be a sparrow-hawk. Three times
he observed the mother fly at the hawk, rolling it over on the
ground as it attempted to escape with one of the chicks in its
talons. At length, however, it succeeded in shaking off the hen,
and rose in the air, but only to fall at once by the keeper's gun.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XXI.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT THE ORANGE,
ST. ALBANS, DURING THE YEAR 1894.
By John HopxiNsoir, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
Read at Watford, 23rrf April, 1895.
Longitude of Station, 0° 20' 7" W. ; Latitude, 51^ 45' 9" N".
Cistern of barometer 388 feet, ground-level at thermometer-screen
380 feet, and at rain-gauge 379 feet, above Ordnance Datum.
Thermometers (in Stevenson screen) 4 feet, and top of rain-gauge
1 foot, above the ground. Observations taken at 9 a.m.
The accompanjring tables (pp. 162, 163) give the monthly means,
etc., of the daily observations in 1894, and the following is the
usual summary for the seasons : —
Means for the Seasons feom Dec. 1893 to Nov. 1894.
' 1893^94. P"^^-
Temperature.
«^»|- Cloud.
Force
of
Wind.
RainfalL
Total. Days.
Winter ....
; Spring „.,.
Summer
1 Autumn.....
ins.
29 993
29958
29-971
30033
38s II'^
47-S 16-8
588 , is-i
490 j 11-3
7o
0-10
67
6-4
6 6
70
0-12
2-1
17
1*5
1-5
ins.
6-85
696
8-50
10 '2 1
57
44
55
54
In the next table the chief results, monthly and annual, are
compared with the means for the ten years 1877-86 at Watford.
DiFFEEENCB IN 1894 FROM MeANS OF 1877-86 AT WaTFORD.
Months.
Pressure.
Temperature.
Force
Rainfall.
Mean.
Daily
Rang&
Hami-
dity.
Cloud.' of
1 Wind.
Total.
Days.
January.—
February
March ....
April
May _.....
June
July
August ..„
September
October ....
November
December
in.
—•133
+ 096
--025
- --024
+ 007
+•078
—•032
+•015
+•079
-fO'I
-4-0-I
--27
+3-6
""^'?
—1-6
— 0-2
—2*5
-31
+05
+30
+29
-
-
hi -6
-1-8
-22
-1*2
-2*3
-2-3
-1*5
-2-4
-3*9
'XI
-o-i
H
7o
- 2
- 3
- 2
- 2
- I
- I
0-10
+07
—10
— 09
4-07
■fo'i
— O'l
+0-5
-04
+07
+1*2
--0-3
+0-2
0-12
+•3
+•6
— •3
+:?
— I
— '2
— '2
-i
in.
— o-oi
-073
+070
—0*19
—0-92
+0*25
+ri6
+179
-0-54
+ 7
— I
4- I
+ I
+"5
Year ....
+•038
+0-2
— 08
+ 1
-
— I
+1-24
+28
VOL. VIII. — PART VI.
12
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
162
J. HOPKmSON — ^METEOBOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
164 J. HOPHNSOir — ^METEOEOLOQICAL OBSERVATIONS
The year 1894 was rather warm, the excess of temperature
occurring in the early part of spring and towards the close of the
year, the summer being rather cold. The mean daily range of
temperature was less than usual, and although the low minimum
of 10^-9 occurred in January, the absolute range was not great, the
maximum not exceeding 81°*6. The temperature was considerably
above the average in March, April, November, and December, and
considerably below it in May, August, and September. The mean
pressure of the atmosphere was above the average of the ten years
1877-86 at Watford. The lowest pressures recorded at 9 a.m. were
29*150 ins. on 14th November and 29* 156 ins. on 13th March, and
the highest was 30*642 ins. on 27th December, giving a range
of 1-4 92 in. The rainfall was a little above the average of the
ten years 1877-86, and much above a long-period average. The
number of wet days was much greater than usual. August,
October, and November were very wet months; February, June,
and September were rather dry. The air was a little more humid
than usual. The prevailing direction of the wind was from south,
through south-west to west.
In the winter of 1893-94 (December to February) the mean
pressure of the atmosphere was about the average, the mean
temperature a little above the average, with a considerable mean
daily range, the air was of average humidity, the sky a little
brighter tiian usual, and the rainfall about the average, though
there was an unusually large number of wet days. There was only
one cold period of considerable duration, the twelve days from 30th
December to 10th January. There were ten days in succession in
December (18th to 27th), thirteen in January (11th to 23rd), and
twelve in February (2nd to 1 3th) without a single night on which
the temperature of the air fell below freezing point.
In the spring (March to May) the mean pressure of the atmo-
sphere was rather high, the mean temperature was high with
about an average mean daily range, the air was rather humid,
the sky of average brightness, and the rainfall rather heavy, but
on about the usual number of days. The high mean temperature
was due more to the warmth of the days than of the nights,
the mean daily range being considerable. Owing to the warmth
and moisture the weather was very favourable to vegetation.
In the summer (June to August) the pressure of the atmosphere
was again rather high, the mean temperature was low, except in
July, when it was about the average, the daily range of temperature
was small, the air rather humid, the sky of average brightness,
and the rainfall rather heavy and on an unusually large number
of days. While very favourable to vegetation during the early
part of the summer, the weather was disappointing towards the
end, there being very few fine days together to favour hay-making.
In the autumn (September to November) the pressure of the
atmosphere was very high, the mean temperature was about the
average, the daily range of temperature was small, the air rather
humid, the sky rather cloudy, and the rainfall excessive and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1894.
165
very frequent. This last is the chief feature of the autumn, the
excess in the rainfall being an inch and a half above the average of
the ten years 1877-86 at Watford, and two and a quarter inches
above the average of the seven years 1887-93 at St. Albans.
The difference between these seasons and the means of the seasons
for 1877-86 at Watford, is shown in the following table : —
DiFFEEENCE IN 1893-94 FROM Means OF 1877-86 AT Watford.
Seasons,
1893-94.
1
Temperature.
Humi-
dity.
Cloud,
Force
of
Wind.
Bainfall. |
Pressure. ,
i
Mean.
Daily
Range.
0-10.
Total.
Days.
Winter ....
Spring .....
Summer.....
Autumn.....
-
in.
-009
-019
-•020
1-096
— 1-2
+01
-j-i-6
-fo*4
—21
—2-6
7o
4- I
-- I
4- 1
-08
0-12
+■4
-•3
— I
-•3
ins.
—0-96
+0-51
+0-49
+152
+ 6
-- 2
--12
+ 6
Notes on the Months.
January. — Rather warm, with a considerable daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and rather low
pressure, a bright sky, and a considerable rainfall on a large
number of days. Coldest day 6th, mean 19^*3 ; warmest day
12th, mean 44°-7. Min. below 32° on 12 days, below 22*=^ on 5
(6th to 9th), below 12° on one day (6th) ; max. above 42° on 21
days (below 32° on 6). The first ten days were very cold, having
a mean temperature of only 27°*3 (9 a.m. 27°*3, min. 21°-7, max.
32°'8) ; the 23rd and 24th also were rather cold days (mean
33°* 9) ; the rest of the month was warm. Rain (or snow) fell
every day from 8th to 20th (13 days), and the only two suc-
cessive days without either were the 6th and 7th.
February. — Rather warm, with a considerable daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and rather high
pressure, a bright sky, and a rather small rainfall on about an
average number of days. Coldest day 19th, mean 29°*9; warmest
day 7th, mean 49°*6. Min. below 32° on 9 days ; max. above 42°
on 22 days, above 52° on 4 (6th, 7th, 26th, and 27th). The thirteen
days from the 1 2th to the 24th were colder than the rest of the
month ; the five days 1 9th to 23rd were very cold, having a mean
temperature of only 30°-7 (9 a.m. 28°*3, min. 24°-l, max. 39°-7).
The rainfall during the last half of the month was twice as much
as it was during the first half.
March. — Very warm, with a large daily range of temperature,
a dry atmosphere of rather high pressure, a very bright sky, and
a rather heavy rainfall, but on an average number of days Coldest
day 3rd, mean 38° 2 ; warmest day 3l8t, mean 53°*2. Min. below
32° on 4 days (3rd, 6th, l7th, and 18th); max. above 62° on 13
days, above 62° on 3 (27th, 30th, and 31st). The last seven days
were much the warmest ; there wfis no really cold period, and on
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
166 J. H0PKIK80N — METEOBOLOGICAL 0BSEEVATI0N8
only four nights was the minimum below 32° ; but the temperature
was very variable, especially during the drought of 16th to 30th;
thus at 9 a.m. it was on 19th 37°-5, and on 20th 46°*9 ; on 24th
37°-7, and on 25th 50°-8; on 29th 39°-0, and on 30th 48°-8. Ko
rain fell from 16th to 30th, there being thus an absolute drought of
fifteen days ; on the other hand the rainfall for the ^'ve days 11 th
to 15th was an inch and a half, nearly all, however, falling on
12th and 14th.
April. — Very warm, especially during the first half of the
month, with a considerable daily range of temperature, a humid
atmosphere of rather high pressure, a rather cloudy sky, and
about the average rainfall on the usual number of days. Coldest
days 2l8t, mean 43°*6, and 22nd, mean 43°*5 ; warmest day 8th,
mean 57°-2. Min. below 42° on 14 days; max. above 52° on
26 days, above 62° on 8 (1st, 3rd, 7th to 11th, and 29th). For
the first 13 days in the month only 0*15 inch of rain fell, on three
days ; but rain fell every day from 14th to 18th and from 23rd
to 30th, none falling for the 4 days 19th to 22nd. A partial
drought of 30 days, with 0*26 inches of rain, terminated on 13th.
The maximum temperature recorded has but slightly been exceeded
during the previous seven years ; the minimum has been 9 degrees
lower during that period.
May. — A cold month, being about half a degree colder than
April, with a small daily range of temperature, a rather humid
atmosphere of about average pressure, a sky of ordinary brightness,
and an average rainfall on the usual number of days. Coldest day
20th, mean 42°*4 ; warmest day 16th, mean 59°-8. Min. below
42° on 20 days; max. above 52° on 28 days, above 62° on 6 (14th
to 17th, 24th, and 25th). On the first eight days only 006 inch
of rain fell, on two days ; between 9th and 15th 0*80 inch fell, and
between 21st and 31st 155 inch; none falling on the &\e days
4th to 8th nor on the five days 16th to 20th. There was a slight
fall of snow on 20th, and on the uight of 21st-22nd a sharp ground-
frost, which did much damage to young fruit and vegetation
generally, potatoes, gooseberries and currants, and the blossoms
of the earlier strawberries, specially suffering.
June. — A rather cold month, with a small daily range of tempera-
ture, a rather humid atmosphere of considerable pressure, a sky of
average brightness, and a small rainfall on about the usual number
of days. Coldest day 6th, mean 49°"4; warmest day 31st, mean
67°-0. Min. below 52° on 26 days; max. above 62° on 18 days,
above 72° on 3 (28th, 29th, and 30th). The month may be divided
into a cold and wet, and a warm and dry period, all the rain
falling during the first 20 days, the mean temperature of which
period was 54°-9 (9 a.m. 55°^, min. 48°-l, max. 6l°-5); while
the last ten days — the rainless period — had a mean temperature
of 6()°-4 (9 a.m. 60° 2, min. 50°-5, max. 70°-6). The highest
temperature during the wet period was 67°*7 : this was exceeded
every day but one during the dry period, and on each of the last
three days the maximum exceeded 76°.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TAKEIf AT ST. ALBANS IN 1894. 167
July. — Of average temperature, with a rather large daily range,
an atmosphere of averajre humidity and rather low pressure, a
rather cloudy sky, and about the average rainfall, but on a large
number of days. Coldest day 23rd, mean 56°-2 ; warmest day Ist,
mean 69°-7. Min. below 52° on 8 days; max. above 62° every
day but one (23rd), above 72° on 9 days. The first week and the
last week were very warm, the mean temperature of the first seven
days being 6o°-8, and that of the last seven days 62°-9, while the
intermediate period of seventeen days had a mean temperature of
only 58°*4. An absolute drought of 15 days terminated on 5th,
after which rain fell on nineteen consecutive days, 6th to 24th,
to the amount of 2 J inches. The only other fall of rain during
the month was 0*28 inch on the 29th. There was a thunderstorm
on the evening of the 6th, and another on the afternoon of the
14th, when nearly a quarter of an inch of rain fell in half an hour
(2 to 2.30). A double rainbow was observed on the 7th, lasting
from about 7.45 to 8 p.m. As usual, the colours in the larger arc
were fainter than in the smaller one, and in reversed succession.
On the 29th, between 1.55 and 2 p.m., Miss E. A. Ormerod
observed at Torrington House, St. Albans, ** a mass of very much
broken cloud behaving most peculiarly. . . The chief part was
floating from east to west, but several straggling masses at the
highest point, or pieces of neighbouring cloud, became detached,
or rather turned back in the contrary direction, and the two bodies,
or fragments of clouds, crossed each other. In about a minute the
air in the valley was full of dust, the wind bringing it up, with
a quantity of smoke also, and by about two o'clock the curling cloud
was dispersed. It did not fall as rain, nor did it float on, but
appeared as if it were simply blown to pieces." "While Miss
Ormerod was making these observations in the valley, a miniature
whirlwind was observed on the hill above, at The Grange, the
air being suddenly filled with particles of dust whirling rapidly
round and round. At about the same time there were thunder-
storms, with heavy rain, in several parts of the Midland counties.
AuGFST. — A rather cold month, with a very small daily range
of temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and pressure,
a rather bright sky, and a very heavy rainfall on a large number
of days. Coldest day l7th, mean 53°-7 ; warmest day 14th, mean
64°'7. Min. below 52° on 14 days; max. above 62° on 26 days,
above 72° on 3 (14th, 26th, and 31st). All the rain in the month
fell during the first twenty- five days, and only four of these (6th,
14th, 17th, and 20th) were without rain. On the 23rd 0*77 inch
fell, and on the 24th 1 '42 inch, giving over two inches in the two
days. It is entirely due to this excessive fall that the month was
a wet one.
Septembeb. — A cold month, with a very small daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and pressure,
a cloudy sky, and a rather small rainfall on about the usual
number of days. Coldest day 29th, mean 46°*5 ; warmest day
1st, mean 58°-8. Min. below 42° on 5 days ; max. above 52°
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
168 J. HOPKINSON — METEOROLOGICAL 0BSEBVATI0W8.
every day, above 62° on 7 days. Raiii fell every day from 3rd
to 9th (0-75 inch), and every day from 2l8t to 26th (0'98 inch),
also on 15th and 16th (0-15 inch).
October.— A rather warm month, with a very small daily range
of temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and pressure,
a very cloudy sky, and a heavy rainfall on a large number of days.
Coldest day 22nd, mean 39°-4 ; warmest day 26th, mean 53°-8.
Min. below 42° on 10 days; max. above 52° on 22 days, the nine
days on which it did not exceed 52° being 14th to 22nd, a cold
period having a mean temperature of 44°'0 (9 a.m. 43°*5, min.
39°- 5, max. 48°- 9). The nights were much warmer than usual
and the days rather colder. A few flakes of snow fell on the 23rd,
and from that day to the end of the month rain fell daily, the total
fall for the last nine days being 2*81 inches, leaving only 0-71 inch
for the rest of the month.
November. — Very warm, with about an average daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and considerable
pressure, a rather bright sky, and a very heavy rainfall, but on the
usual number of days. Coldest day 23rd, mean 36°- 1 ; warmest
day 1st, mean 56°-2. Min. below 42° on 24 days, below 32° ol
one day (23rd); max. above 52° on 9 days, above 62° on one
day (Ist). The first five days were very warm, having a mean
temperature of 54°-8 (9 a.m. 54°-9, min. 50°-9, max. 58°-5). The
rainfall on the five days 10th to 14th was 3*52 inches, and on the
eight days 7th to 14th 4*23 inches, leaving only 0*58 inch for the
rest of the month. An account of the floods in Hertfordshin
to which this heavy rain gave rise, was given at the previout
meeting of the Society (see p. 141). During the last ten dayj
the fall was only 0*01 inch, on the 23rd, due to condensed fog
rather than actusd rain.
December. — Another warm month, with an average daily range
of temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and considerable
pressure, a rather cloudy sky, and a rather small rainfall, but on
a considerable number of days. Coldest day 31st, mean 32°*4;
warmest day 14th, mean 48°*4. Min. below 32° on 10 days;
max. above 42° on 27 days. During the nine days 13th to 21st
1-47 inch of rain fell, leaving only 0*62 inch for the rest of the
month. The large number of days (20) on which an overcast sky is
recorded is due in great measure to the prevalence of fog in the
mominffs.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. VIII, Plats IX.
Ancient Stone Implements.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XXII.
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
THE STONE AGE IN HERTFORDSHIRE.
By SiE John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S.,
V.P.S.A., etc., Vice-President of the Society.
Delivered at the Annual Meeting, 26th February , 1895, at Watford,
PLATES IX-XIV.
Ladibs and Gentlemen, —
I am sure that aU who are present this evening, at the twentieth
Anniversary Meeting of our Society, sincerely regret the absence
of our President, especially as he is away from us on account
of ill-health ; but of all who regret his absence I do not think
that there is anyone who does so more sincerely than I do. The
reason why I am now addressing you is that about ten days ago
our Secretary, Mr. Hopkinson, called upon me and pathetically
appealed to me to help the Society out of a difficulty. I suggested
that as on this occasion a new President was to be elected, he
might be willing to anticipate the Address which he would have
to give in twelve months* time. I found, however, that Mr.
Henry Seebohm had already been approached on the subject, but
had more work on hand than would allow him to prepare an
Address, and out of sheer compassion for our Honorary Secretary
I agreed to deliver the Ajiniversary Address in the place of our
President, Mr. Stradling.
The subject which I have selected is ** The Stone Age in Hert-
fordshire." But before I proceed to discuss this subject I wish
to congratulate the Society on having completed its twenty years
of existence. I was present when the Society was inaugurated;
I had the honour of being its first President ; I have watched over
its growth and prosperity during the last twenty years ; and I am
glad to think that at the end of this year it will have attained its
majority. The Society is in a very favourable condition compared
with that of a great many of the local societies which are spread
over the length and breadth of the land, and I think that our
* Transactions ' contain as valuable papers as any that are published
by other local societies. They are admirably edited by our Honorary
Editor, Mr. Hopkinson, and I am sure that without his aid the
Society would on more occasions than one have found itself in
circumstances of great difficulty.
VOL. Vin. — PABT VII. 13
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
170 Snt JOHN ETANS — THE STONE AGE
I believe that duriDg the past year there has been no event in
the proceedings of the Society of sufficient importance to require
mention by me, and I will now, therefore, address a few words
to you on the subject of the Stone Age in Hertfordshire, — and the
consideration of the Stone Age in Hertfordshire involves that of
the Stone Age in many other parts of the world.
The last time that I had the honour of addressing the Society,
about fifteen months ago, I spoke with regard to the Bronze Age,
and I then pointed out that the history and progress of human
civilization had been divided into three great periods, namely the
Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. There was a
period during which mankind was entirely unacquainted with the
use of metals, and to that period the name of the Stone Age has
been given, inasmuch as for those ordinary purposes to which
metal is now applied, stone implements were used instead of those
of metal. But after a time it was found that bronze, a metal
consisting of a mixture of copper and tin, the origin of the
manufacture of which was probably due to the previous use of
copper only, was more durable and more effective for tools
than stone, though stone implements continued in use during the
Bronze Period for certain purposes, especially for pointing arrows,
which were readily lost, and of which it was therefore desirable
that the intrinsic value should be but small.
The Bronze Age was succeeded by the Iron Age, and it is known
that at all events for three or four centuries before our era iron was
in use among the Gaulish, and therefore probably among the British,
tribes. When I last addressed you I suggested that bronze came
into use in this country about 1,000 or 1,200 years B.C., but I added
that before that time there must have been a lengthened period
during which stone alone was the material in use for cutting-instru-
ments. The period which immediately preceded the Bronze Age was
characterized by tools and weapons of a fairly civilized kind, that
is to say their edges were in many cases ground, and as much care
was taken in fashioning them as if they had been made of metal.
But behind that age — the Neolithic or Surface Stone Period — there
lay a far earlier period, separated from it by a gap which no one
has been able to measure, but which carries the traces of man back
to an almost incalculable antiquity.
I purpose on the present occasion to treat first of the Neolithic
or Surface Stone Period, a period during which the surface con-
figuration of the country had assumed very much the same
appearance as that which it now shows; and then to treat of
the PalsBolithic or Early Stone Period, a period which carries us
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Trans. Hertt Nat. Hut. Soe„ Vol. VIII, Plate X.
Ancient Stone Implements.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IN HTRTPOEDSHIRE. 171
back to the time when the valleys which now exist were not
excavated to anything like their present depth, and when various
animals now extinct inhabited this country.
The ordinary forms of implements which characterize the
Neolithic Period are celts (a kind of hatchet), picks, chisels,
gonges (rare in Britain), hammers, hammer-stones of various
kinds, grinding-stones, flakes, cores, scrapers (with a rounded or
a semicircular edge), borers, knives, javelins, arrow-heads, and
perforated axes. Personal ornaments also occur, such as buttons
or studs, beads, rings, armlets, and necklaces.
The manner in which some of these articles were manufactured
may first be considered. To make a flint implement, such as a
small flint knife with two sharp edges to it, would at first sight
not appear to be an easy thing to do ; but the manufacture of such
flint implements is still carried on in this country, at Icklingham
in Suffolk, and at Brandon on the borders of Norfolk and Suffolk,
at both of which places I have seen the process of making gun-
flints. At Brandon some twenty or thirty workmen are employed,
producing from 200,000 to 300,000 gun-flints per week. The
flint-blocks used in the manufacture are there obtained by sinking
small shafts into the ground until one of the bands of flints
occurring in the Upper Chalk is met with which contains flints
of the right qufdity ; and along this band low horizontal galleries
are then worked, and the large flints extracted.
The same method was followed not far from the same spot by
the ancient flint- workers of the Neolithic Age. At Grime's
Graves, near Brandon, in Norfolk, the whole surface of the
ground is studded with pits which were evidently made at that
remote period for the purpose of extracting flints from the chalk.
One of these pits was explored by Canon Greenwell, the well-
known barrow-digger, and it was found that after passing through
a layer of flints of inferior quality, the very layer from which
gun-flints are manufactured at the present day, known as the
** floor- stone," was met with, and that along it horizontal galleries
had been driven, the excavations having been made by means of
picks formed from the antlers of the red deer. Similar pits have
also been explored at Cissbury, near Worthing, in Sussex ; and at
Spiennes, near Mens, in Belgium.
The process of making a sharp-edged flint flake or knife
with two sharp edges is really easy. A large piece of flint
is first broken across so as to give it a flat surface; a blow
is then given netir the margin of the flint with a spherical-
ended hammer (which may be of iron or merely a large pebble)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
172 • snt JOHir eyaks — the stone age
almost at right angles to the flat surface. By this means a flake
or splinter is struck off. Another blow detaches another flake, and
a ridge is left between the two plane surfaces from which the
flakes have been removed ; a blow immediately behind this ridge
will bring off a third flake of triangular section and having two
sharp knife-like edges. If the blow be administered at some
distance from the edge of the flint, a perfect cone will be produced.
The flint being elastic, the small circular spot on which the blow
falls is driven slightly inwards into the body of the flint ; and the
result is that a circular Assure is made which gradually enlarges
in diameter as it descends below the surface, so that the piece of
flint within the circular fissure is in the form of a cone, with a
slightly-truncated apex at the small circle struck by the hammer.
It is then an easy matter to strike ofl the surrounding flint. The
cone or portion of a cone made by the blow is known as the bulb
of percussion. A cone of flint thus made by a single blow of
a hammer is shown in Fig. 1.
Fio. 1. Artificial cone of flint, i.
Gun-flints are manufactured in a rather diflerent manner. After
one flake has been struck off, the next blow is given at a distance
of about an inch from the spot where the first blow fell, and then
others are given at similar distances. By this means splinters are
struck off until the block of flint assumes, at least in some portion
of it, a more or less regular polygonal outline ; flakes are then
struck off by blows behind a flat surface and not a ridge, so as
to produce flat four-sided blades with two edges, and these are
converted into gun-flints by breaking them into short lengths and
trimming them.
I will now show you, by practical demonstration, how flakes
can be struck off a block of flint by blows from a round-pointed
hammer. After being thus struck off they can be pieced together
again, the flint being built up into its original form, as you will
see by Fig. 2. The central block from which flakes have been
removed is known as a * core ' or * nucleus.' You can readily
imagine how one of the simpler forms of hatchets can be manu-
factured. The stone hatchet represented on the scale of one-half
in Plate IX, fig. 1, has not been ground, but was produced by
a series of blows, first on one side and then on the other, so as to
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IN HEBTF0BD8HIBE. 173
produce a regular form, having a cutting edge at the broader end.
"When I was out shooting one day I picked up, in a field at
Bedmond, a roughly- formed hatchet of this kind, and showed it
to my keeper. Before we had proceeded many hundred yards,
the keeper, whose eyes were sharper than mine, discovered a flint
hatchet of somewhat narrower proportions, and almost uninjured.
It is figured in Plate Xl, fig. 1. I have found four or five of the8e
roughly- chipped hatchets in a single field of my own, and no doubt
those who would take the trouble to look in the fields around
them would have their efforts rewarded. The roughly-chipped
hatchets which have afterwards been ground and polished have in
all cases been finished on a grindstone which was fixed and not
rotatory, and the striae on them are nearly always longitudinal,
thus proving that they were rubbed lengthways, not crossways, on
the grindstone. I have a hatchet, which I found in a field of my
own at Abbot's Langley, ground at the edge, which has afterwanU
been intentionally blunted by grinding. A specimen ground at
the edge only is shown in Plate IX, fig. 2. Rough-hewn hatchets
Fig. 2. Flint core with flakes replaced upon it. i.
have been found in the neighbourhood of Ware, and a fine speci-
men of a polished hatchet, found in the neighbourhood of Pans-
hanger, is in the possession of Earl Cowper ; others have been found
at Albury near Bishop's Stortford, and at Hitchin, the latter not
being of flint but of some other hard stone. The hatchet or celt
found at Albury is sharp or but slightly rounded at the sides, and
presents a pointed oval in section ; that from Panshanger is flatter
at the sides, and has the butt end semicircular, and, like the sides,
rounded. Both are polished all over and attain a length of about
seven inches* An example of such a celt is shown in Plate IX, fig. 3.
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174 ant john eyaits — the stone age
From the hatchets the step to the chisels and the gouges or
hollow chisels is easy. In this country the latter are of extreme
raiity, hut in Scandinavia they are often to he found, chiefly near
the sea- coast, where they were prohably used in the construction of
canoes cut out of solid trunks of trees, and for other purposes.
Other forms of implements are perforated. A block of stone of
a hard character was generally selected, and a hole bored in the
middle, in all probability by pecking with a flint implement, and
then grinding the rough holes thus made on either face with
a piece of hard wood and sand, drilling until the two conical
depressions met in the middle of the block. In other specimens in
which the hole is nearly parallel, and which may be of later date,
it is probable that some other method of boring was adopted. It
has been found that with a piece of ox's horn and wet sand or
emery-powder a hole can easily be bored by turning the horn round
and round. I have myself taken an old stone hatchet and cut
it in two with a bit of string and some sand ; and I have bored
a hole in it partly by means of wood and partly by means of
a marrow-bone, used with sand and water, but I found that the
latter answered better than the former. I am not aware of a per-
forated hatchet having been found in this county, but some years
ago a small stone hammer-head, with a hole for the shaft or
handle which must have been bored in some similar manner to that
which I have described, was found near Sandridge by Dr. Griffith,
and is now in the British Museum. This type of hammer is shown
in Fig. 3. A perforated adze or hoe formed of a dark grey grit,
Fio. 3. Hammer found in Redmore Fen, Cambs. }.
and found at Welbury, near Offley, is shown in Fig. 4. The
original is in the collection of Mr. W. Ransom, F.S.A., of Hitchin.
Flakes are plentiful, but it is difficult to say to what period they
belong. A certain number may have been made by the plough
coming in contact with flints, and others may have been used
in comparatively modem times for the purpose of striking a light.
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Trantf. Herts Nat, Hitt. Soe., Vol. VIII, Plate XI.
8
Hertfordshibe Stone Implements.
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IN HEETFOBDSHIKE. 175
Plint flakes are often found on Roman sites, and one reason for this
I may explain. The word ** tribulation" is well-known to all of
you, and some may have thought that they may have suffered what
they call tribulation ; but probably all do not know that tribulation
means being placed under a ** sharp threshing instrument having
teeth," the Latin name for which was ** tribulum." It was
a kind of wooden sledge in which a number of holes were bored,
Fio. 4. Stone adze or hoe, "Welbury, Offley. }.
and in each one of these holes, some hundred in number, a sharp
flake of flint was inserted. The implement was drawn over the
threshing-floor by a yoke of oxen, and the com was thus subjected
to the process of tribulation. It was no doubt his tribulum that
Araumdi gave to David with which to make a fire for his burnt-
offering. I have seen threshing-machines of this kind in use in
Spain, and they are still used in the East. Some of the chipped
flints probably used for this purpose in Roman times are frequently
found on Roman sites. I have myself noticed them at Yerulamium
(St. Albans). A long flint-flake from Highbury, Hitchin, is shown
in Plate XII, fig. 6, from Mr. Ransom's collection. It is probably
PaltBolithic.
Flint-flakes with ground edges are occasionally fouud. They
appear to be well adapted for use as knives when held between the
ball of the thumb and the end of the first finger, no handle being
required. I have one of these flakes, which I found in a field of
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176 SIR JOHW EVAW8 — THE STONE AGE
my own in the parish of Abbot's Langley. It is about 2^ inches
long, ridged, pointed at one end, and ground at the other ; one side
has been very carefully ground to an edge. Fig. 5 shows a flake
thus sharpened.
Fio. 6. Flmt-flake, ground at edges, Charlton, Yorkshire, £.R. i.
I will next direct your attention to the scraper, an implement
still used in North America for the purpose of scraping the insides
of hides in order to remove the fatty matter and so prepare them
for tanning. I am not aware how the Esquimaux make these
instruments, but I have found by experiment that, taking a flake
of flint, made with a stone hammer consisting of a flint or quartzite
pebble held in the hand, and placing the flake on a smooth block
of stone, I can, by successive blows of the pebble, chip the end of
the flake without any difficulty into the desired form. The face
of the stone hammer must be brought to bear a slight distance only
within the margin of the flake, and, however sharp the blow, the
smooth block of stone on which the flake is placed, and which of
course projects beyond it, acts as a stop to prevent the hammer
from being carried forward so as to injure the form, and it is
brought up sharply directly it has done its work of striking off
a splinter from the end of the flake. The upper face of the flake
remains quite uninjured, and there is no difficulty in producing the
evenly-circular edge of the scraper by successive blows of the
convex pebble. A typical scraper is shown in Plate IX, fig. 4.
A longer form of scraper, to which the term duck-bill scraper has
been applied, is of frequent occurrence. One of these, found by
myself on the Sussex Downs, is represented in Plate IX, fig. 5.
A flat flake, trimmed into a scraper-like form, and found near
Hitchin, is shown in Fig. 6. It is in the collection of Mr. J,
Hopkinson.
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Dr HERTFOBDSHIKE. 177
I have frequently shown how scrapers may have been made
in the manner described, and once it led to an amusing incident.
You all know what an admirable lecturer the late Professor
Tyndall was. I once met him by appointment at Watford
station and we took a walk into the country together, during
which I showed him the process of making a scraper, and he
was very much interested in it. When near Red Heath a
shower came on and we stopped to take shelter. A country girl
about twelve years of age came up to us, and Professor Tyndall
proceeded to explain to her the process by which a flint scraper
could be made ; and whether it was more amusing to watch the
amazed expression on the face of the girl who was being instructed,
or the intellectual countenance of the Professor who was giving
the lecture, I am not prepared to say, but it was certainly a quite
unlooked-for result of the little insight which I had given Professor
Tyndall into the manner in which stone implements were made.
Fio. 6. Flint-flake, near Hitcbin. }.
In olden times it was necessary to produce a state of combustion
by some violent frictional action in order to obtain fire. It has
been supposed by some that by striking two flints together a spark
can be obtained that will ignite tinder, but that is not the case,
as however much flint may be heated it will not bum as some
metals do. A spark may be obtained by striking together a piece
of iron and a piece of flint, but iron was not known to early man.
Pyrites (sulphide of iron), however, has the same property in this
respect as iron itself, and Pliny records the tradition that fire was
the offspring of Cilix and Pyrodes, which seems to refer to the
method of making fire by means of silex and pyrites. I have
myself been able to light tinder by means of pyrites and a piece
of flint, and this may have been another purpose for which these
scrapers were made, as long scrapers worn at the end have been
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178 SIR JOHN EViKS — THE STONE AGE
found in graves, together with blocks of pyrites, also showing signs
of wear.
Turning from these homely implements to weapons of war or of
the chase, I will now refer to the small flint weapons, varying
in size and also considerably in shape, known as arrow-heads.
The variation in size probably arises from some of them having
tipped spears to be held in the hand for close encounters, and
others having been attached to lighter shafts to form javelins for
throwing at objects at a distance; but most of the smaller kinds
were undoubtedly the heads of arrows discharged from bows.
Lance-heads are usually more or less lozenge-shaped, while arrow-
heads, though sometimes of that form or more nearly leaf-shaped,
with or without a decided stem like the petiole of a leaf, are often
of more complicated form, being stemmed and barbed. These are
of most common occurrence, but one leaf-shaped form appears to
be almost peculiar to a certain class of long barrows, though the
stemmed and barbed, lozenge and leaf- shaped forms have been
found together in the soil of the same grave-mound.
I have this morning received by post three arrow-heads which
have been found in the neighbourhood of Hitchin by Mr. Frank
Latchford. I have also arrow-heads found near Ware, and otliers
from Pirton and Tring. The irregularly-barbed arrow-head repre-
sented in Plate X, fig. 1, was found by myself in 1866 on the
surface of a field at the foot of the Chalk escarpment between
Eddlesborough and Tring. One of the surfaces is very rough, and
the outline is far from symmetrical, though it can hardly be re-
garded as unfinished, but rather as showing how rude were some
of the appliances of our savage predecessors in Hertfordshire, even
in the Neolithic Age. Some tanged and barbed flint arrow-heads
of nearly the same form, but apparently a little more symmetrical,
were found about 1763 at Tring Grove when the Grand Junctioa
Canal was being made. The remains of a warrior were then found,
and between the legs of the extended skeleton were several of these
arrow-heads, at the feet being some perforated plates of greenish
stone used as bracers or arm-guards, and similar in character to
those still worn by archers to prevent the string of the bow from
hitting the arm. A bracer from Scotland is represented in Fig. 7,
and some more arrow-heads are shown in Plate X, figs. 2, 3, 4,
and 5. A specimen from Ashwell, fialdock, in the collection of
Mr. A. £. Gibbs, is shown in Plate XII, fig. 1. It is a debatable
question whether the majority of the flint arrow-heads do not
belong to the Bronze Period rather than to the Stone Period.
Flint arrow-heads are not so difficult to make as they appear to
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Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. VIII, Plate XII.
5 6 7
Hertfordshire Stone Implements.
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IK HERTFOEDSHIBE. 179
be. I have made them both with and without barbs, in this way.
Placing a flake of flint against a stop on a flat piece of wood, and
raising its edge when necessary by placing a small blocking-piece,
also of wood, underneath it, by pressure of a large flake of flint,
Fio. 7. Bracer, Evantown, Rose-shire. }.
such as when now found is called an " arrow-flaker," or " fabri-
cator," upon the edge of the flake, I have detached successive
splinters until I have reduced the flake into the required form.
But the edges of the arrow-heads made entirely with these flint
** arrow-flakers" are more obtuse and rounded than are those of
ancient specimens, so that these flint tools were probably used
rather for the main chipping-out than for the final finishing. This
process can be best performed by means of a piece of stag's horn.
Placing the flake of flint which is to be converted into an arrow-
head against a wooden stop, and pressing the horn against the edge
of the flake, this edge enters slightly into the body of the horn;
minute splinters can then be detached by bringing the pressure of
the horn to bear sideways, and the arrow-head may in this manner
be formed by degrees without much risk of its breaking. The
leaf- shaped arrow-heads are the most easy to manufacture, and
they were probably the earliest in use ; but not only can these
simple formB be produced by this means, but also the barbed
arrow-heads, both with and without the central stem. Here is one
leaf- shaped (like that in Plate X, ^g. 3), which I may describe as
a Hertfordshire stone implement, for I made it myself out of a
Hertfordshire flint in the manner which I have described.
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180 8IB JOHN EYANS — THE STONE AGE
At the International Congress of Pre-historic Archaeology held
at Norwich in 1868 I gave an account of the method by which
I believed various forms of stone implements were made, and after-
wards when at our warehouse in the City I was told that a man
wanted to see me. I found myself confronted by a disreputable-
looking individual who informed me that he was known as " Flint
Jack." He was a notorious forger of stone implements and of fossils
in general, carrying on his iniquitous trade in Yorkshire. On my
enquiring how he came to be in London he said to me : "I under-
stand that you have been showing them at Norwich how to make
these things, and I wish you would show me some of your
specimens, for I understand that you are likely to attain to an
equal degree of eminence with myself." I did not satisfy his
curiosity, but gave him a trifle and advised him to get back to
Yorkshire. Since that time I have always looked with a certain
amount of interest at ** Flint Jack's" productions, although I
consider my own arrow-heads to be superior to those which he was
in the habit of making.
I will not detain you with any account of the other forms of
implements which were in use in the Neolithic Age, nor of the
ornaments with which the ladies of that period adorned themselves,
but I may say that there was already at that time a certain
number of domesticated animals, that spinning and weaving were
practised to some extent, and civilization was fairly advanced,
considering that metals were almost unknown. It is now necessary
to say a few words about the Palaeolithic or River-drift Period.
The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age is also known as the River-
drift Period, because the majority of the implements belonging to
that age have been found in river-gravels, near the course of the
present rivers but above their present levels. It is, however,
a mistake to suppose that the occupation of the country by
Palaeolithic man was limited to river-valleys, for a considerable
number of implements has been found a long way from any stream.
Let us briefly consider how our rivers have been able to deepen
their courses. As it is chiefly in the gravels of such Chalk districts
as those of our own county that such implements are found, it will
be sufficient to trace the probable origin of one of our Hertfordshire
river- valleys.
We may assume that the central part of our county, over which
the upper portions of the rivers Lea and Colne and their tribu-
taries now flow, was an almost horizontal area of chalk, with beds
of marine clay and shingle upon it, rising from beneath the sea
more rapidly than a river flowing over it could excavate its valley
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nr HSRTFORDSHISB. 181
to the leyel of the aea hy any suhaerial action. We may also
assume that the winter climate was more rigorous than it is at
present, and that the annual rainfall was much greater. At the
present time there is no geological formation less liable to floods
than the upper portion of the Chalk. It is so absorbent that under
ordinary circumstances it takes in the rain as fast as it falls upon
it, and the moisture, when once in the soil, is either carried ofP
again by evaporation and vegetation, or descends to the plane at
which the chalk is saturated with water. This plane of saturation
varies much in different seasons; near the Chalk escarpment in
Hertfordshire, at a spot several miles away from any stream, I
have known its level to vary as much as 70 feet in a single year;
but with a greater rainfall than at present the chalk might at all
times be saturated nearly up to its surface. Floods might then be
as readily produced as if the soil were the most unabsorbent of
rocks.
As the land rose from beneath the retreating sea, shallow
channels might be formed by its waters, a course thus being
marked out along which streams would subsequently flow; on
the bare surface of this newly-elevated tract the eroding power
of heavy rains would be great ; and with a rigorous climate there
would be a large accumulation of snow and ice in the winter, the
rapid thawing of which in the summer would add enormously to
the volume and the eroding power of the streams, causing them to
deepen and widen their channels. The valleys being at first broad
and shallow, the floods would cause the streams to overflow their
banks and spread over the bottom of the valleys, carrying with
them and depositing fine mud or clay, sand, small pebbles, larger
pebbles, and flints or other stones, according to the velocity of the
current. With each succeeding flood the valley would be deepened
and narrowed, the river would become less sinuous, and the
deposits spread by former floods over the bottom and the slopes
of the valley would gradually be left out of the way of subsequent
floods, the earliest-formed deposits being on the highest levels,
which first escaped from the disturbing action of the repeated
floods. Assuming, as I have done, that there were beds of marine
clay and shingle upon the surface of the chalk, there would be
in the higher and older gravels a much larger proportion of pebbles
derived from these beds than of flints from the chalk than would
be found in the lower and newer deposits ; for when the latter
formed the river would have worked its way below the level of
these upper beds, and it would be excavating the chalk and forming
the gravel in its bed chiefly from flints derived from the chalk.
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182 Snt JOHN. EVANS — THE STONE AOE
With a severe climate, also, ground-ice and shore-ice, hoth of
which have considerahle transporting power, would he formed;
the rocks would he disintegrated hy frost, and the fragments or
talus formed would he easily carried away hy the streams.
There is also another reason why we have these valleys formed
in Chalk districts. Rain-water is enahled to dissolve chalk hy
becoming charged with carhonic acid from the decomposition of
vegetable matter on the soil on which it falls, and from every
square mile of chalk country no less than 140 tons of chalk are
carried away in solution each year hy the water which percolates
through the chalk, thus eventually lowering the surface of the
country.
The fact that the constituent parts of the drift gravels con-
taining Palaeolithic implements are always of the same petrological
character as are the rocks in the existing river-hasins, proves that
the gravels are due to some local cause ; and that they frequently
contain land and fresh-water shells and mammalian bones of the
Quaternary period, is conclusive evidence of their fresh -water
origin. The character of the beds and their manner of deposition
also exactly accord with the river hypothesis ; and, moreover, they
occur in such positions as might have been expected had their
presence been due to the action of a stream excavating its valley
in the manner I have described; indeed, in several instances the
probability that certain gravels contained Palaeolithic implements
was pointed out before implements were actually discovered in
them. There are other points of agreement between the actual
phenomena and those of such river-action as I have supposed to
have taken place, and we may, without any doubt, accept the
implements as being truly characteristic fossils of the deposits in
which they are found, and these as being Quaternary river-deposits.
Some important discoveries of Palaeolithic implements have
recently been made in the gravel in the vaUey of the Colne by
Mr. Clouston, a resident at Watford, whom I am pleased to see
here this evening. As the gravel in which he has found them
is 40 feet above the level of the existing river, it follows that at
the time this gravel was deposited the bed of the river was at that
height above its present level.
In the valley of the Gade discoveries of Palaeolithic implements
have been made by myself. One implement was lying on the
surface of a ploughed field near Bedmond, at a spot which, though
probably 160 feet above the level of the nearest part of the river,
is nearly at the bottom of one of the lateral valleys leading into
the main valley of the Colne between Boxmoor and Watford. The
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Trant, Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. VIII, Plate XIII.
Hertfordshire Stone Implements.
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m HERTFOBDSHIKB. 183
implement, which was originally of nearly triangular form, has
unfortunately lost its point. It was probably held in the hand
and used as a weapon of offence. The flint of which it is formed
has become nearly white and porcellanous on both faces, and it has
in some places been so much altered in structure that it can be
cut with a knife, which leads me to suppose that it may have
been derived from some beds of pervious red brick-earth which
occur at the spot where it was found. I have lately found a
smaller ovate specimen at a higher level at Bedmond Hill Farm,
about half-a-mile away. This is represented in Plate XI, fig. 8.
In 1868 I found two other implements in gravel laid on the
towing-path of the Grand Junction Canal, where it is united with
the Gade, between Apsley and Nash Mills. I do not know exactly
whence the gravel in which they lay was obtained, but there is
little doubt of its having been dredged or dug from the bottom
of the valley in the immediate neighbourhood. One of the imple-
ments is of grey flint, flat, of ovate outline, neatly chipped, and
about 4 inches long by 2J inches broad. The other is of an
ochreous colour, of much the same form, though flatter on one
face, and with its angles considerably water-worn. Other imple-
ments have been found near the head of the tributary valley of the
Bulboum, at Wigginton, near Tring.
In the valley of the Lea specimens have been found in gravel
from No-Man's-Land Common by the late Rev. Dr. Griffith,
including one very well-formed implement in my possession, of
which a photograph is given in Plate XI, flg. 4. In all
probability the Lea at one time flowed past No-Man's-Land,
instead of Wheathampstead as at present, and these specimens
have been left by the river. We may not only look for such
implements in the valleys, but also on the tops of the hills where
the rivers have been in many cases. Further down the valley
of the Lea Mr. Worthington Smith has been successful in finding
implements at Hertford and Ware, specimens of some of which
I have. Still further down they have been found at Cheshunt
(see Plate XIII, fig. 5), and on the west side of the Lea Mr. Smith
has found implements at a height of 100 feet above the existing
level of the Thames; and not only implements but the place
where they were manufactured. He has there found the flints
from which the various implements had been made, and flint
flakes which can be put together in their original position ; there
is also other evidence of the occupation of the spot by primeval
man, the traces of which occupation were subsequently embedded
in the gravel. Specimens have also been found at Knebworth,
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184 am john evajts — the stone age
Stevenage,* Hitchin, and Ippollitts. Examples from most of these
places are figured in Plates XI and XII ; particulars of which are
given in the Description of the Plates.
In the valley of the Stort two Palaeolithic implements have heen
found hy Mr. W. H. Penning near Bishop's Stortford. Though
hoth were found on the surface, yet their condition is such that
there can he no douht as to their having heen hut recently dug out
of the soil, their colour being dark brown and ochreous in places.
One of them was found at a short distance from the river, by the
side of a ditch cut in a thin deposit of valley brick -earth, about
a mile north of Bishop's Stortford, and it had probably been
thrown out with the soil from the ditch. It is oval in outline,
rather flatter on one side thjui on the other, and a little thinner at
one end than at the other. The second was found on the sandy
surface of a ploughed field close to Pesterford Bridge. It is of the
same character, but is somewhat broader, and square at the base.
An additional idea of some of the most prevalent forms of Palaeo-
lithic implements may be gained from Plate X, figs. 6, 7, and 8, of
which fig. 6 represents a flake. That from Hoxne, Suffolk, is
singularly like the one described by Mr. Frere so long ago as 1797.
I must now refer to one of the most remarkable discoveries of
such implements which have been made in Hertfordshire. On the
hills in the neighbourhood of Caddington,t Mr. Worthington Smith
has made a similar discovery to that on the west side of the lower
part of the valley of the Lea, to which I have already alluded.
He has there discovered what he believes to be the site of an
ancient lake, the shores of which were once tenanted by men of the
Early Stone Period, who have left evidences not only of their
occupation of the site but also of their having made their stone
implements on the spot, for they have left the flint tools with which
they made them and the flakes they chipped off them in the process
of manufacture. Mr. Smith has pieced together many of these
flakes, reconstructing the original block of flint and thus showing
that the flakes were struck off on the spot. He considers that the
men who made these implements were skilful workmen, and there-
fore that they were not nearly the most ancient of the human race,
having probably migrated from some country with a warmer
climate. The implements which he has found comprise nodules
of flint artificially pointed at one end, and with an un worked butt
end, which was very convenient for holding in the hand; drills
♦ See 'Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. I, p. Ixi.
t See * Man, the Primeval Savage,* by Worthington G. Smith. Stanford,
London, 1894.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Trans. Herts Nat, Hist. Soe., Vol VIII, Plate XIV.
5 6
Hertfordshire Stone Implements,
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
IN HXBTF0BD8HIEB. 185
or borers ; trimmed flakes ; knives and scrapers ; hammer-stones ;
punches ; and other tools the use of which is unknown. Amongst
the implements are some which have been re-pointed, and others
which appear to have been broken in use. In several places there
are artiflciEdly-raised heaps of flints, a further indication that this
was a workshop where the implements were manufactured.
In illustration of these important discoveries, Mr. "Worthington
Smith has kindly lent to the Society a selection of the wood-blocks
used in his excellent little book, "Man, the Primeval Savage."
Impressions from these are given in Plates XIII and XIV, 6uid
full particulars concerning them will be found in the Description
of the Plates.
Mr. Smith believes that the Palaeolithic implements which he
has exhumed at Caddington are not all of the same age, for they
occur in distinct layers, the tools in the highest layer being
different in their nature and colour from those in the layers below.
It does not by any means follow that a rudely-chipped imple-
ment belongs to the Palaeolithic Period, for although the forms of
such implements aflord a comparatively safe guide as to their
antiquity, their age can with safety be determined by geological
evidence only. The character of the fauna with which the worked
flints are associated, comprising as it does the elephant, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, and other animals now extinct in this country,
aflords corroborative evidence as to the length of time that has
elapsed since these flints were fashioned.
These appear to aflord the earliest traces of the existence of man
which occur in our own county, but if we visit the South of
England we And more striking proofs of his antiquity, for there,
capping the cliffs some 80 or 90 feet above the level of the sea,
what was once the bed of a river now forms the surface of the hills
which stretch along the coast, the other side of the valley having
been removed by the inroads of the sea, and in these high-level
and almost inconceivably ancient river-deposits flint -implements
have been discovered.
In Kent what have been regarded as worked flints have been
found in ancient beds upon the plateaux, and these if rightly
regarded as implements, seem to belong to a still earlier period
than the ordinary Palaeolithic forms.
But early as may possibly be the period to which these
discoveries point, I should not venture to affirm that they
designate the origin of primeval man, for discoveries which have
been made in India and other southern countries seem to indicate
a still earlier period for human existence; and although these
VOL. vui. — PABT vn. 14
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
186 8IB JOHN BVAN9 — THE STONE AGE
carry us long ages back in our history, I should still be far from
saying that we have as yet disooyered the very earliest traces of
the existence of man upon the earth.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE IX.
Fio. Neolithic Implekbntb.
1. Symmetrically-chipped, unground, oelt. Reach Fen, Cambridge. Scale,
one-half. In the collection of the author. (* Ancient Stone Imple-
ments.' Fig. 23.)
2. Celt, pointed and unpolished at the butt-end, and ground to a thin circular
edge at the hroad end. Near MUdenhall, Si^olk. Scale, one-half.
Coll. the author. (A.S.I. Fig. 32.)
3. Celt of porphyritic greenstone, polished all over. Coton, Cambridge.
Scale, one-half. CoU. the author. (A.S 1. Fig. 48.)
4. Discoidal scraper made from a broad and short flake. Helperthorpe,
Yorkshire Wolds. Natural size. Coll. the author. (A.S.I. Fig. 207.)
6. ''Duck-hill*' scraper made from a flat flake. Near Cuckmere Hayen,
Sussex Downs. Natural size. CoU, the author. (A.S.I. Fig. 213.)
PLATE X.
Fio. Neolithic Implements.
1. Unsymmetrical barbed flint arrow-head. Eddlesboroueh, near Tring,
Herts. Natural size. Coll. the author. (A.S.I. Fig. 315.)
2. Lozenge-shaped arrow-head made from a flat flake. Grindale, Bridlington,
Yorkshire. Natural size. Coll. the author. (A.S.I. Fig. 296.)
3. Leaf -shaped arrow-head. Yorkshire Wolds. Natural size. Coll. Re?.
W. Greenwell, F.R.S., F.S.A. (A.S.I. Fig. 282.)
4. Small harbed arrow-head, with the ends cut straight. Yorkshire "Wolds.
Natural size. Coll. Rev. "W. Greenwell. (A.S.I. Fig. 312.)
6. Barbed arrow-head, the ends forming an acute an?le with the sides.
Lamhome Down, Berks, (from a barrow). Naturtd size. Coll. British
Museum. (A.S.I. Fig. 319.)
pALiBOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS.
6. Flint flake, with both its edges re-chipped. Redhill, Thetford. Scale,
one-half. Coll. the author. (A.S.T. Fig. 431.)
7. Flint implement, worked to an edge all round. Near Dartford Heath,
Kent. Scale, one-half. Coll. Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell, F.G.S. (A.S.I.
Fig. 466.)
8. Acutely-pointed flint implement, with twisted hlade. Home, Suffolk.
Scale, one-half. Coll. the author. (A.S.I. Fig. 450.)
F.O. ^I^TE XI.
1. Neolithic celt. Redmond, Abbot's Langley. Scale, one-half . Cb//. the author.
2. Palaeolithic instrument. Bearton Green, Hitchin. Scale, one-half. Coll.
the author.
3. Ditto. Fisher's Green, Stevenage. Scale, one-half. Coll. the author.
4. Ditto. No-Man's-Land, Wheathampstead. Scale, one-half. Coll. the
author.
6. Ditto. Railway-cutting, Enehworth. Scale, one-half. CoU. the auUior.
6. Ditto. Ickleford, Hitchin. Scale, one-half. CoU, the author.
7. Ditto. Brickfield, Hitchin. Scale, one -half. CoU. the author.
8. Ditto. Bedmond Hill, Abbot's Langley. Scale, one-half. CoU. the author.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IN EEBTFOSDSBISE. 187
FlO. ^I^TE XII.
1. Neolithic arrow -bead. Ash well, Baldock. Scale, one-balf. Coll. Mr. A.
E. Gibbs, F.L.S.
2. Palseolitbic implement. Folly Pit, Hitcbin. Scale, one-balf. Coll.
Mr. William Ransom, F.S.A.
3. Ditto. Higbbory, Hitcbin. Scale, one-balf. CoU, Mr. W. Ransom.
4. Ditto. Higbbnry, Hitcbin. Scale, one-balf. Coll. Mr. W. Ransom.
5. Ditto. Ickleford, Hitcbin. Scale, one-balf. Coll Mr. W. Ransom.
6. Flint flake. Higbbnry, Hitcbin. Scale, one-balf. Coll, Mr. W. Ransom.
7. Palsolitbic implement. Highbury, Hitcbin. Scale, one-balf. Coll.
Mr. W. Ransom.
PLATE XIII.
Fig. Paksolithio Implements.
1. First flint implement found in titA at Caddin^ton, Herts. Scale, one-balf.
Coll. Mr. Wortbington G. Smitb. (* Man, tbe Primeval Savage.*
Fig. 65.)
2. Ovate flint implement. Caddington. Scale, one-balf. Coll. tbe autbor.
(Fig. 67.)
3. Small scraper-like flint knife. Caddington. Scale, one-balf. Coll. tbe
autbor. (Fig. 81.)
4. Ovate flint implement, witb sbarp cutting edge all round. Caddington.
Scale, one-balf. Coll. the author. (Fig. 69.)
6. Slightly-abraded flint tool. Flamstead End, Chesbunt, Herts. Scale,
one-half. Coll. tbe author. (Fig. 130.)
6. Flint flake trimmed on one face. Caddington. Scale, one-balf. Coll.
Mr. W. G. Smith. (Fig. 70.)
7. Scraper-like flint tool. No-Man*s-Land Common, Wheatbampetead,
Herts. Scale, one-half. Coll. Mr. W. G. Smitb. (Fig. 128.)
PLATE XIV.
Fio. Paueouthic Implements.
1. Small unfinished flint implement, witb one flake replaced. Caddington.
Scale, one-half. Coll. Mr. W. G. Smitb. (Fig. 94.)
2. Finished flint implement, broken in Palaeolithic times ; both pieces found
and conjoined. Caddington. Scale, one-half. Coll. the author.
(Fig. 97.)
3. Other side of the same implement, with three flakes replaced. (Fig. 98.)
4. The same implement, with a fourth flake replaced. (Fig. 99.)
5. Finished flint implement, witb one large flake replaced. Caddington.
Scale, one-half. Coll. the author. (Fig. 96.)
6. The opposite side of tbe same implement. (Fig. 96.)
7. Edge view of tbe same implement. (Fig. 96.)
The figures in Plates IX and X are from the author's * Ancient Stone
Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great Britain ' (1872) ; those in
Plates XI and XII are process-reproductions of ormnafphotographs of
the actual implements ; and those in Plates XIII and XIv are from Mr.
Wortbington G. Smith's *Man, tbe Primeval Savage* (1894).
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XXIII.
NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA. OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE
DURING THE YEAR 1894.
By A. E. GiBBs, F.L.S., F.E.S.
Bead at Watford, 2SrdApHl, 1894.
The year 1894 was marked by a dearth of insect-life, so far, at
least, as the Lepidoptera are concerned. Whether this was due to
the excessively wet season following the very dry summer of 1893,
I cannot say, but it is probable that meteorological conditions were
the chief cause of it. All my correspondents tell the same tale of
want of success. ** Sugaring " locally yielded no results, and a few
days in July spent in the New Forest, where insects are generally
very abundant, proved most disappointing. Mr. Arthur Lewis
and your Recorder tramped many miles, visiting plantation after
plantation, only to return home with empty boxes.
Mr. 8. H. Spencer, jun., of Watford, says that while he found
the sallows in his neighbourhood very productive, sugaring was
quite a failure, although the evenings selected for this work were
such as are known in the ordinary way to be good ones. A great
many Geometers and a few NoctuaB were taken by him on the
lamps, and he expressed the opinion that ** lamping " was fairly
successful on the whole.
I regret that the number of our local observers is falling off.
One gentleman — ^Mr. Pilbrow — who has in past years supplied me
with valuable information from Colney Heath, has left the neigh-
bourhood, and others have been too much occupied by business and
other engagements to devote their time to Entomology. My report
this year will therefore be a short one.
Butterflies.
Mr. A. C. Smith, of St. Peter's Street, St. Albans, brought to me
a specimen of the large tortoise-shell butterfly ( Vanessa polyMoros)
which he captured in his house. This is the first specimen of this
insect which I have seen alive in St. Albans for some years. I
alluded in my last report to the fact that it is getting scarce in
Hertfordshire, and Messrs. F. Latchmore and Harold Gbtward,
of Hitchin, again write that the large tortoise-shell '^ is not nearly
so common here as it was a few years back." It is interesting to
notice that Miss E. A. Ormerod has included this butterfly amongst
the injurious insects of 1894, and has devoted a chapter to it in
her last annual * Report of Observations of Injurious Insects.* Mr.
D. D. Gibb, of Ossemsley Manor Farm, Lymington, wrote to Miss
Ormerod on the 19th of June asking advice as to dealing with a
caterpillar-infestation, a cherry-tree on his lawn having been
stripped of its leaves in a very rapid manner. The larvsB proved
to be those of the large tortoise-shell butterfly, and they were easily
found and destroyed. Miss Ormerod points out that, " generally
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LKPIDOPTEBA OBSBRYED IN 1894. 189
speaking, the large and beautiful insects are so scarce that they
might be left uninjured with little fear of consequences," and all
naturalists, I am sure, will thank her for speaking a word in favour
of such a comparatively-rare and therefore harmless species.
Messrs. Latchmore and Gatward report that the peacock butterfly
{Vanessa To) was abundant at Hitchin, both in the larval and
perfect state, and that the painted lady ( V. cardui) was observed
on the wing in several places. The red admiral (F. atalanta)
was plentiful in both the larva and the pupa state, and was very
common, even through the cold days of October, feeding in the
rolled- up leaves of the nettle. Colias edusa is not reported as
having been observed in 1894.
Moths.
Yery few observers have sent notes to me with regard to the
hawk-moths. My correspondents at Hitchin, Messrs. Latchmore
and Gatward, report that the poplar, lime, and eyed hawk-moths
were the species principally noticed by them at Hitchin, the
first-named insect being very abundant. Mr. R. W. Bowyer, of
Haileybury, reports that the elephant hawk-moth (Charoeampa
elpenar) came rather commonly to light. A new Hertfordshire
locality has to be recorded for the broad-bordered five -spot bumet-
moth \Zygana trifolii). On the 14th of July Mr. S. H. Spencer
had a specimen of this insect taken to him by his friend, Mr. Edwin
Jackson, who found it drjring its wings on a thistle at Watford.
Mr. Latchmore tells me that he noticed a number of webs of the
little eggar-moth {JEriogaster lanestris) on hawthorn and sloe bushes,
but did not attempt to rear any. Two years ago I drew the
attention of our members to this moth, which is interesting on
account of the length of time during which it will remain in the
chrysalis state. I captured a number of the larvae both in 1892
and 1893, and they fed-up and in due time became chrysalises.
Many of those reared in 1892 are still in the pupa state, and
scarcely one of the 1893 brood has yet become a perfect insect,
although I have some scores of them. They emerge at the rate
of about three a year, so that it takes a considerable amount of
time and patience to obtain a nice series for the cabinet.
In 1893 I alluded to the fact that four years previously Mr.
Arthur Lewis, of Sparrowswick, St. Albans, liberated some larvae
of the emperor- moth {Satumia pavonia) in his garden, and the
insect appears to have established itself on Bernard's Heath, which
adjoins his grounds. On the 31st of August last Miss E. A.
Ormerod kindly sent to me four larvae and a pupa of this handsome
insect which had been taken on the Heath and sent to her. The
larvae were full-grown, and three of them began to spin their
cocoons at once, the other feeding on sloe and plum for some days
longer. On the 4th of April Mr. E. G. Bryant, of 8t. Peter's Street,
St. Albans, sent to me a female imago of this species which his
little boy had picked up in the street. She laid a number of bright
green eggs, but they proved to be infertile. Specimens of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
190 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON LEPIBOPTERA
caterpillar feeding upon heather are adorned with a number of
beautiful pink tubercles, each surrounded by a black ring, but in
the specimens from Bernard's Heath the tubercles were golden.
Probably this is the original colour, and the pink tint of the
heather-feeding individuals may be developed for the purposes of
protection in order to assimilate with the colour of the heather-
blossom.
At the beginning of August Mr. Latchmore, of Hitchin, found
a beautiful specimen of the sallow kitten-moth {IHcranura furcula)
on a sallow-leaf. It so strongly resembled the white deposit of a
bird that he nearly overlooked it. Unfortunately a friend to whom
he showed it shook it off the twig and killed it on the floor.
Mr. Arthur Lewis reports the occurrence of the bullrush-moth
{Nonagria arundinis) in his grounds at Sparrowswick. When he
cut the buUrushes growing in a small pond in August or September,
he found that they had been attacked by the larvae of this moth,
and he succeeded in finding one pupa from which the perfect insect
had not yet emerged. He preserved it, but the drying of the rush
caused the moth to appear in a crippled state. The larva of this
species feeds in the stem of the buUrush, eating a gallery in the
pith until nearly fully fed, when it prepares a circular hole for its
escape, leaving only the epidermis. It then pupates in its gallery
and in due time emerges through the hole which it has made.
Mr. Arthur Griffith includes this moth in his Sandridge list, but
this is the only other Hertfordshire record.
One of the insect-pests of last season, in the south-west of
Scotland, was the antler-moth ( Charaas graminis). Miss Ormerod,
in her recently-issued * Eeport,* alludes to this infestation as ** one
of the most remarkable insect-appearances of the past year." The
caterpillars were present on the sheep-farms in vast numbers, and
as they feed upon the tender shoots of the grass they did in-
calculable mischief by devastating the pastures. This moth was
present in Hertfordshire, but not in any great numbers. In July
Mr. Albert Piffard, of Felden, Boxmoor, sent to me for identifica-
tion a specimen which he had taken in the day-time on heracleum.
Mr. Bowyer tells me that Agrotis ohscura (ravida) was the rarest
insect seen by him on Hertford Heath in 1894. There are only
two other Hertfordshire localities entered for it, namely, Hitchin
and East Bamet. Mr. Bowyer says that it is scarce in his
neighbourhood.
In March and April sallow-beating proved fairly remunerative ;
indeed, this work was the most productive of the year. The
common Tantocampa were, as ususd, very abundant, and for the
first time I took T. populeti at Bricket Wood. Mr. S. H. Spencer
took six specimens on the 19th and 24th of April, and Mr. Arthur
Lewis and I each captured a few. T. munda was plentiful, but we
did not take a single specimen of T. gracilis,
Mr. Cutts, of Nascot Wood, Watford, had two specimens of the
green arches-moth {Aplecta prasina) emerge in his insect-cage on
the 6th of June. This beautiful moth is far from common, but
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OBSEBTED IN HSBTF0BD8HIBE IK 1894. 191
I have taken two or three specimens at " sugar." The only other
observer who has recorded it is Mr. Bowyer, who has found it on
Hertford Heath.
The handsome caterpillars of the mullein-moth ( Cucullia verhasci)
were observed by Mr. Harold Gatward, of Hitchin, feeding on
a mullein plant in his garden in Tilehouse Street. Mr. Cutts has
also taken the larva of this insect abundantly on mulleins at his
residence at Nascot Wood, Watford. The allied species, the water-
betony moth {C. scropkularia), was, as ususd, very abundant on the
plant from which it takes its name, at Ickleford and other water-
side places in the north of the county. It is not easy to determine
these two moths in their perfect state. Mr. Cutts records the
capture of a specimen of the chamomile shark-moth ( C, chamomilla)
at Nascot Wood. This is the second record for Hertfordshire. He
also adds the treble-bar moth {Anaitis plagiata) to his Watford list.
When searching some sallow-bushes for kitten-moths in July,
Mr. Latchmore found several beautiful cocoons which contained
very black-looking chrysalises. One moth had not emerged. A
few days later he was delighted to find in the box a specimen
of the herald-moth ( Oonoptera lihairix), Mr. Latchmore says :
" I cannot conceive of a more beautiful insect than this is on its
emergence from the pupa state."
The common silver Y-moth {Plusta gamma) was remarkably
abundant in the autumn in my garden at Avenue House, St. Albans.
I had a number of plants of Lilium auratum in flower, and they
proved to be very attractive to these species, several moths being
frequently seen in a blossom at the same time. I did not notice
that other species were attracted by the lilies.
A very pretty insect is the least-yellow underwing {Heliaca
tenebrata\ of which Mr. Spencer and his friend Mr. Wigg caught
four specimens on the 14th of May at Biicket Wood, a locality in
which I captured it ten or twelve years ago. They were flying
over the blossoms of the wild strawberry and several other small
flowers. This species appears to be generally distributed through-
out the county, though it is nowhere very abundant.
One bitterly cold evening in October Mr. Latchmore took at
"sugar," at Grove Mill, a fine specimen of the red imderwing
(Catocala nv^ta). This insect he reports as being quite common
at Hitchin, by the water-side. On the 26th of March Mr. Spencer,
who, like myself, was at Biicket Wood in the day-time with the
net, caught a specimen of the orange underwing (Brepkos par-
thenias)j and saw several more flying among the sallows and birch
bushes. I also caught sight of this insect, but as it flies very high
it is not easy to capture it. This moth appears in our record-book
as having been captured at Haileybury, Hertford, and East Bamet.
It is a good insect for the cabinet, its undcr-wings having a
striking orange tint, and its fore-wings being of a reddish colour.
Mr. Spencer records the occurrence of the bordered white
{Bupalus piniaria) at Chipperfield Common on the 30th of June.
He writes: '^I saw this insect flying in considerable numbers
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
192 LEPIDOPTRBA OBSEHYED IN 1894.
round the tops of some Scotcb firs and other conifers. I was
nnable to catch a single specimen, though they came aU but within
the reach of my net. I know the insect well, so there can be no
mistake as to its identity." The only other Hertfordshire record
for it is that given by Mr. J. H. Durrant, who has taken it at
Hitchin. The two sexes of this insect are quite dissimilar. The
male has white as the ground-colour of its wings, with a black
apical patch, while the female has wings of an orange-brown tint.
The little moths known as pugs are a very difficult genus to
make out, and are very apt to be neglected. The larv© mostly
feed in the blossoms of plants, eating the floral organs and some-
times penetrating the seed-vessel. We have fifty British species
of these Uupitheciaj of which exactly one half have, up to the
present time, been recorded as occurring in Hertfordshire. To our
local list Mr. Spencer now contributes one more. He records the
capture of a specimen of the dwarf pug-moth (^JEupitheeia ptmUata)
in Kowse Bam Lane, Watford, in May last.
Early in July, Mr. B. Piffard, of Hill House, Hemel Hempstead,
sent to me a pretty little olive-brown and white moth, one of the
Tineina, the larva of which he had found feeding in the centre
of the base of the peduncle of the common ash, he believes in May.
Before turning to a pupa the larva crawled out and spun a thm
web. The infestation of this insect caused many leaves to fall off.
The species proved to be Frays curtiselluSy a moth which is known
to cause mischief to ash-trees through the ravages of its larvae.
Mr. Spencer has sent the following notes : — ^' Melanism : I took
one specimen of Taniocampa stahilu in which the brown has changed
to black, and one specimen of Apamea oeulea, which is one of the
darkest I have ever seen. — Colias hyalei two specimens of this
butterfly were taken by some boys in the gravel-pits near Cassio
Bridge during the year 1892. — UuehloS cardamines: I have a
specimen of this butterfly, captured in 1893, which measures
l-sV inch from tip to tip, the markings being the same as in the
ordinary typical form. — Acidalia remutata : several specimens
taken during June, 1893. — Acidalia bisetata: several specimens
taken at dusk in 1893."
I desire, in conclusion, to thank my correspondents for kindly
sending to me notes of their observations. As the number of
our observers is declining, I again appeal to all entomologists in
the county to assist in the work of compiling as complete a list
of the Lepidoptera of Hertfordshire as possible. This can only
be done by united effort, and it will be a great help if those
who take an interest in Entomology will communicate with the
Eecorder of the Lepidoptera.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XXIV.
REPORT ON PHENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA OBSERVED IN
HERTFORDSHIRE DURING THE YEAR 1894.
By Edwabd Mawlbt, Pre8.R.Met.Soc., F.R.H.S.,
Phonological Recorder to the Royal Meteorological Society.
Bead at Watford, 2Zrd April, 1896.
The number of observers remains the same as in the previous
year. No returns were received from Broxboume, but on the
other hand a new station has been started at Hatfield. The
observing stations are now well distributed over the county,
the only districts unrepresented being those in the neighbourhood
of Che^unt in the south-east, Bishop's Stortford in the east, and
Buntingford in the north-east, from any of which localities I shall
be very glad to receive observations.
The names of the stations, their height above sea-level, and the
names of the observers are as follows : —
Station.
Height above
Sea-lerel.
Obsbrveb.
Watford (The Platts)
Radlett (Newberries)
St. Albans (The Grange)
St. Albans (Addiscombe Lodge)
St. Albans (Worley Road) _.
Berkhamsted (Rosebank)
Harpenden „
Hatfield (Symons Hyde) „.
Hertford
Hifrhir^ ,,^,,,^
240 fe
320
380
400
300
400
370
300
140
230
260
Bt.
Mrs. G. E. Bishop.
Miss E. M. Lubbock.
Mrs. J. Hopkinson.
Miss E. F. Smith.
Henry I/e wis.
Mrs. E. Mawley.
J. J. Willis.
T. Brown.
W. Graveson.
J. E. Little, M.A.
H. G. Fordham.
Aahwell (Odsey)
The Wintbb op 1893-94.
"With the exception of two cold periods, one lasting nearly a
fortnight and the other about a week, the weather during this
winter continued persistently mild. The first frost set in at the
end of December, and lasted until the 8th of January. For several
successive nights very low readings were registered at Berkhamsted,
and on one of them a thermometer exposed on the surface of the
snow fell to zero of the Fahrenheit scale — thus indicating 32° of
frost. The second cold period, which occurred soon after the
middle of February, was not nearly so severe, the exposed
thermometer at no time showing more than 18° of frost.
Notwithstanding the exceptional keenness of the January frost,
very little harm was done to vegetation. This is no doubt ac-
counted for (1) by the gradual way in which the temperature
declined from night to night, until the lowest reading was reached,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
194
E. HAWLET — PHENOLOGICiLL PHENOMENA.
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OBSERTED IN HEBTFOBDSHIBE IIT 1894.
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
196 B. HAWLET — PHEN0L06ICAL PHEKOMENA.
(2) the covering of snow protecting low-growing plants, (3) the
perfectly matured condition of the wood of fruit-trees, shruhs, etc.
In fact, when I came to prune my roses in March, I found that
the shoots of even the most tender hyhrid perpetuaLs were perfectly
sound.
Mr. Little, writing from Hitchin, remarks that queen wasps
hibernated together in large numbers, as many as filled an old
teapot having been found under a large tarpaulin on the roof of
an outhouse.
Taking all the returns sent in, the hazel flowered four days later
than its mean date for the county for the previous seventeen years ;
the song-thrush was first heard five days later than usual ; and the
honey-bee first visited flowers about a fortnight later.
The Spbing.
Until the middle of April there did not occur a single unseason-
ably cold day, while only a few of the nights were even moderately
cold. From that time seasonable temperatures mostly prevailed
until the end of the third week in May. A change to cold weather
then took place which lasted until the end of the quarter. This
change was remarkably complete, and took place very suddenly.
Indeed, on two nights, those preceding the 2l8t and 22nd of May,
my exposed thermometer registered 11° of frost.
These frosts, which were followed by cold north-easterly winds,
proved most disastrous to fruit-blossoms and potatoes, as well as to
the young shoots and the foliage of trees, shrubs, roses, etc. It
must be remembered that at the time they occurred everything
was in a singularly forward condition, owing to the previous long
spell of warm weather, and the absence of anything like a check
from low night temperatures. Fortunately, beyond arresting tem-
porarily their growth, no damage was done either to the young
com or to the grass. The effects of these frosts varied greatly in
different localities according to their elevation, exposure to sun-
shine or cold winds, and other causes. Previous to their occurrence
the fruit-trees were laden with blossom, and having weU-ripened
shoots, the promise of grand crops never seemed more assured.
The apple-trees and strawberries were in most places the greatest
sufferers.
At Watford, Mrs. G. E. Bishop states, potatoes and strawberry
blossoms were very much cut, while bedding plants in frames
unprotected were much injured and many were killed.
Mr. Hopkinson reports that May was the first month last year
in which the mean temperature had up to that time been below the
average, and that on the nights preceding the 21st and 22nd there
occurred at St. Albans sharp ground-frosts which did much damage
to fruit-blossoms and vegetation generally. Our earliest and best
strawberries were, he says, cut off, making the crop very poor,
and a fortnight later than usual.
Nearly all the potatoes in my garden at Berkhamsted had their
tops destroyed, with the exception of those growing on a south
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
0B8EBTED IN HEKTF0BD8HIEB IN 1894. 197
border under a high well. These^ although a foot high, were
8C€u:cely touched.
At Harpenden these frosts are described by Mr. Willis as having
done an immense amount of damage to fruit-trees, and to some
vegetables. The apple-blossom, of which there was in this neigh-
bourhood an abundance, was almost entirely destroyed, with the
consequence that this fruit was exceedingly scarce. Goose-
berries could be gathered from under the bushes by quarts, many
trees being almost bared of their fruit. Strawberry-bloom suffered
greatly in exposed situations. Potatoes were cut down in many
places, and so greatly were the plants injured that they never
recovered, and yielded minute tubers only.
At Hitchin the May frosts appear to have been severely felt,
for Mr. Little states that in that neighbourhood potatoes, beans,
and all tender plants such as geraniums, placed out too early,
were destroyed. Many native trees and other plants such as the
oak, ash, beech, elm, maple, elder, ivy, thistles, plantains, and
bladder campion {Silene injlata) were frost-bitten. In the gardens,
gooseberries, currants, and strawberries were much injured.
Mr. Fordham mentions that at Ashwell, geraniums, dahlias, etc.,
were cut down by the frosts of the 2l8t and 22nd of May.
According to the returns sent in coltsfoot came into flower one
day earlier than its mean date, the wood-anemone four days later,
blackthorn ten days earlier, garlic hedge-mustard eight days earlier,
and the horse-chestnut and hawthorn respectively twenty-one days
and nineteen days in advance of their usued time, whereas the
white ox-eye, which flowered in many places after iie May frosts,
was only four days early.
The swallow made its flrst appearance four days late, but the
cuckoo was first heard two days earlier than the average, while
the nightingale was one day early.
The wasp was first seen sixteen days earlier than usual, the
small white butterfly six days earlier, and the orange-tip butterfly
nearly a fortnight in advance of the mean date.
Thr Summeb.
There was a little warm weather at the end of June and at the
beginning and end of July, but with these exceptions the tempera-
ture remained cold for the season. The summer rainfall was in
excess of the average, and there was a marked deficiency of sun-
shine, especially during August.
The crop of hay was an unusually heavy one, and was in most
districts harvested in capital condition. The cereal crops were also
good, but their ingathering took place under trying conditions,
much of the com having been laid by heavy thunderstorms, while
rain fell almost every day until nearly the end of August. The
yield of wheat, barley, and oats was above the average, but the
heaviest crop of the year was that of oats.
By the middle of June the potatoes in my garden at Berkhamsted,
which had had their tops destroyed by the May frosts, appeared to
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
198 £. MA.WLET — PHONOLOGICAL PHENOICENA. IN 1894.
have quite recovered, and were looking as vigorous as ever. On
the roses, however, many more ** scorched " leaves were to be seen
than immediately after tiie frost occurred.
Owing to the frosts in May and the two droughts of the previous
year, there were in most places but few strawberries, while rasp-
berries, currants, and gooseberries were less plentiful than usual.
Throughout the summer very few wasps or butterflies were to
be seen.
The dog-rose came into flower six days in advance of the average,
but after this time most of the plants on the list were late in
blossoming, black knapweed being two days late, the harebell a
week late, and the greater bindweed one day late.
Thb Autumn.
During the whole of September and the greater part of October
the weather continued cold, while November on the other hand
remained unusually warm throughout. The three weeks ending
November 14th were excessively wet, but during the rest of the
quarter the rainfall was very light.
This was a favourable season for the farmer, as the land during
the flrst half of it was in a capital state for working and for sowing
autumn com; and later on the weather was so mild and the rainfall
so plentiful that imtil unusually late in the year the supply of keep
for cattle and sheep in the meadows remained singularly abimdant.
The apple-crop was a very scanty one in most places, while that
of plums was only about the average. The yield of pears, on the
contrary, was a heavy one. Wild berries of all kinds were especially
abundant, and notably holly-berries. Mr. Little remarks that at
Hitchin the whitethorn haws were as abundant as the spring
blossom promised. Holly-berries also were very plentiful there.
Owing to the sunless character of October the autumn tints
were, as a rule, very poor. During November Mr. Little noticed
at Hitchin that thrushes were singing throughout the month, and
that the leaves on the ehns at Bearton Green remained on the trees
with little change of colour, and in considerable masses, much
beyond their usual time. Mrs. Bishop noted at Watford on
November 5th that the leaves of the ash were still very green,
while the oak leaves had nearly all fallen.
The ivy came into flower eleven days later than its mean date.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XXV.
THE GALE OF THE 24TH OF MARCH, 1896, IN HERTFORDSHIRE.
By John Hopkikson, F.L.S., F.G.S., r.R.Met.Soc.
lUad at Watford, 2Zrd April, 1895.
DuBiNG the last few months, rain, frost, and wind have been
vying with each other as to which could do the greatest amount of
damage, but far more irreparable injury was done by last month's
gale than by the frosts of January and February or by the floods of
November. In a few days nearly all traces of the greatest flood
probably ever recorded in the annals of Hertfordshire had passed
away ; m a few months our burst mains and service-pipes may all
be renewed or repaired ; but never will the many mighty monarchs
of our parks and woods, relics of our primeval English forests,
which have been laid low by the recent gale, again raise their
heads and look proudly down upon their companions of more
recent growth. The damage done to churches and other buildings
throughout the Midland Counties and the South of England can
easily be repaired, but when thousands of trees are uprooted on
a single estate, as at Sandringham in Norfolk and on the adjoining
estate of Castle Rising, the loss is irreparable — generations will
pass away before younger trees can take their place.
Although there was not such wholesale destruction as this in
Hertfordshire, our loss has been heavy, and the gale swept with
devastating force over the greater part if not the whole of the
county. The maximum velocity of the wind appears to have been
about that of an express train, as will be seen from the following
observation of Mr. Edward Mawley at Rosebank, Berkhamsted : —
"Throughout the day of the 23rd of March and during the
following night the wind blew constantly from S.S.W., and at an
average velocity of 17 miles an hour. By noon of the 24th thj)
direction had changed to S.W., and the velocity had increased to
25 miles an hour. At 1 p.m. tiie wind was still in the 8.W., and
the mean rate of movement had increased further to 32 miles.
During the next hour the wind was veering gradually from S.W.
to W.8.W., and the record for the hour reached 40 miles. Between
2 and 3 p.m the direction changed slowly from W.S.W. to W.,
and it was during this time that the gale reached its height, the
velocity for that hour amounting to 44 miles. After this the
strength of the wind gradually decreased until between 3 and
4 o'clock the next morning, when the velocity had fallen to 5 miles
an hour. Since observations were first made here ten years ago
I have never before recorded so high a velocity as 44 miles for
a single hour. The individual gusts were often very fierce. At
3 p.m. during the gale I obtained a mean velocity for a quarter of
a minute of 60 miles an hour."
We have here given not only the velocity of the wind and its
variation from time to time as recorded by an anemometer, but also
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
200 J. Hopxnrsov — oile of the 24th of habch, 1895,
its direction ; and that the wind, when at its height, hlew from the
west or slightly south of west is fully borne out by the direction
in which most of the trees fell. I walked through several of the
parks in the west of the county and as far east as Panshanger after
the gale, compass in hand, and found nearly all the trees lying
towards the east or slightly north of east. Elms seem to have
sufPered most, and next I think were oaks.
At St. Albans the gale was at its height rather earlier than at
Berkhamsted. Writing from Hedges, St. Albans, Mr. F. W.
Silvester says : —
** The wind began to gather force at about 1 o'clock, and at 1.45
exactly a tremendous gust swept over Hedges Farm from a north-
westerly direction. At that moment our garden-wall, seven feet
high, was levelled to the ground for a distance of forty feet, and
the best fruit-tree in the garden, a greengage, was buried beneath
the ruins. At the same time ricks were stripped and the straw
was blown all over the place ; a wild cherry-tree hard by was cut
in two, the top being blown several yards from the trunk; an
immense poplar on Mr. Wigg's estate fell; and several large and
valuable trees on Lord Grimston's property at Sopwell were blown
down. The high chimney-shaft of my engine-house oscillated so
much that it was considered prudent to remove the cart-horses
from the stable-yard adjoining it until the gale was over, and all the
afternoon men were engaged putting harrows, etc , on the ricks in
order to prevent further damage. Some straw in one of my fields
was blown a distance of two fields* length back to the homestead.
It appeared that the shepherd wanted a special heap of straw as a
shelter for his lambs. The foreman wished him to use some other.
He, however, took three or four bundles out of the forbidden heap,
and strange to say each one was blown back to the rickyard, no
doubt much to the delight of the foreman, who thought that the
act of disobedience was justly punished. Later in the afternoon
I had occasion to drive to Leav^en, and the havoc effected on the
route bore evidence to the north-westerly direction of the wind as
far as I could see. A large tree at Leavesden Asylum fell at the
time we felt the full force of the gale at Hedges."
I now give a brief account of the damage done by the gale
chiefly as recorded at the time in three of our county newspapers
— the * Watford Observer,' the * Herts Advertiser,' and the * Hert-
fordshire Mercury.'
In the north of Hertfordshire the gale did much damage to
Royston and its neighbourhood. The cupola in the cemetery was
blown off, falling upon and damaging the roof of the building.
Tiles and slates were scattered about the streets, straw stacks were
blown to pieces, and many trees were torn up by the roots or
snapped in two. At Hitchin the gale did much damage to roofs
and chimnej's, and uprooted a large number of trees, chiefly elms,
some of which fell across the roads, interrupting the traffic.
In the west the gale was severely felt in Hemel Hempstead.
The parapet on the eastern side of the Midland Eailway bridge was
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IN HEBIFOBBSHIBS. 201
blown over on to the line of railway. Exposed farmyards suffered
much, the thatch and some of the contents of ricks being scattered
to a great distance.
In the south-west the gale was severely felt. At Rickmans-
worth, slates, tiles, and fencing were blown down, and some shop-
shutters in High Street were blown in. A stable at Woodcock
Hill was blown down. Fine trees were uprooted in Moor Park
and Rickmansworth Park, and at Loudwater Hill and Croxley
Green. In Watford a garden-wall and palisading in Clarendon
Eoad were blown down, plate glass windows in High Street were
smashed by shutters being blown through them, and chimneys fell
through the roof of Field House. The trees in Cassiobury Park
suffered severely, several being uprooted and branches of others
torn off. At Aldenham stacks were much damaged and many
large trees were blown down or had branches torn off them.
Proceeding towards the centre of the county the havoc wrought
by the gale was even greater than in the west and south-west. An
account of some of its effects in the neighbourhood of St. Albans
has already been given. Three of the finest old trees at Halls
Place fell not many minutes before I saw them Ijdng prostrate in
St. Peter's church-yard. Some of the oldest trees in Gorhambury
Park were uprooted and others were broken off near the ground.
On the Sandridge road the hedges presented a strange appearance,
being lined with straw from demolished stacks ; straw was also
hanging over the telegraph wires of the Midland Railway for
miles. At Harpenden a wall near Mardell's brewery was blown
down, several stacks and outbuildings were stripped of their
thatch, and many trees were blown down in the neighbourhood.
Similar damage was done at Hatfield, slates and chimney-pots
being blown off, and the contents of ricks scattered in all direc-
tions, while trees were uprooted and huge branches were torn off
others. Several trees were blown down in Hatfield Park and
Brocket Park, while further north the fine ayenues of Knebworth
Park suffered irretrievable damage. In the neighbourhood of
Welwyn many trees, chiefly elms, fell, and others lost largo
branches. The trees in Digswell and Tewin Water Parks suffered
severely.
In the east of Hertfordshire similar damage was done in Pans-
hanger, Watton, and Sacombe Pca*ks, and also in the parks and
woods in the neighbourhood of Buntingford. At Hertford the
gable- end of a house in Villiers Street was blown down, several
other houses were damaged in various ways, and roofs were blown
off sheds and stables. A considerable length of the wall round
The Grove, Port Hill, was demolished. A tree in the Castle
grounds was blown down, and also one in Morgan's Walk, several
others in the neighbourhood sharing a similar fate. Stacks also
were much injured. Several slates were blown off the roof of the
dome of Haileybury Chapel and carried some sixty yards across the
quadrangle and through one of the dormitory windows. At Ware
tiie gable-end of a house in Little Horse Lane was blown down,
VOL. vin. — PAET vn. • 16
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
202 J. HOPKINSON — SALE OF THE 24tH OP IIAKCH, 1895.
roofs and cowls of malting-housea were much damaged, and a large
window at the west end of Christ Church was blown in, crashing
through the flooring-boards, without being broken. The brick
wall bordering the Presdales estate on the London Boad was blown
to the ground for a length of from sixty to seventy yards. Hay
and straw stacks were unroofed and scattered, and many trees in
the neighbourhood were uprooted. Three large trees on the side
of the road leading from Baldock Street to Wadesmill fell across
the road, stopping traffic until the following day, when they were
removed. The fine old avenue in Ware Park suffered severely, no
less than sixteen of its trees being levelled to the ground. At
Hoddesdon considerable damage was done in several parte of the
town ; a stone cross was blown off the top of the church ; and large
boughs of trees were wrenched off at Rose Hill and elsewhere in
the neighbourhood.
Our record is a long one, but it can by no means be considered
exhaustive. It covers nearly the whole of Hertfordshire, and it
must not be inferred that in the few districts which have not been
alluded to, no damage, or but little, was done, but rather that
these districts have not been visited by me and no reports from
them have appeared in the newspapers from which my information
has been derived. Most of the damage seems to have been done by
two gusts of wind, one at about 1.45 p.m., the other at 3. The
severe frost of February, which penetrated far into the ground,
must have considerably loosened the surface-soil, and this may
account to some extent for the very large number of trees which
were uprooted, especially in the case of such shallow-rooted trees
as elms, which suffered most. It is also possible that some trees
which withstood the first gust had their roots somewhat loosened
by it and succumbed to tiie second, though neither gust alone
would have brought them down. The great force of the wind is,
however, amply testified to by the snapping of large trees just
above their roots, as in Gorhambury Park, and by the huge
branches torn off others.
It is to be hoped that our county may not again for many years
be visited by such a devastating gale as swept over it on this
memorable Sunday afternoon.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
XXVI.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.
Entomology.
Head at Watford, 2%th December, 1894.
Tree- Wasp's Nest at Herga, Watford. — About the middle of last
June a man whom I had employed to mow the grass around some
trees in my garden informed me that he had been a great deal
troubled by wasps, and after much search (for he had looked on
the ground) had discovered a wasp^s nest on a Cedrus deodara.
The nest was on a lower branch about two feet from the ground,
and, when I first saw it, was a little larger than a big cocoa-nut.
As this was the first nest of the tree-wasp {Vespa silvestris)
which I had met with, I asked my neighbour, Mr. George Hooper,
to look at it, and he informed me that the nest would grow much
larger, and that the wasps were not nearly so pugnacious as our
common ground- wasp ( Vespa vulgaris). Such I found to be the
case, as though I looked at the wasps every day quite closely, they
never attacked me, and the nest grew imperceptibly and apparently
by expansion from within, for I could never detect any fresh
addition to the exterior.
My time being much occupied from the middle of July, I had
but few opportunities of watching the nest after then, and on the
21st I went on a visit to some Mends. Eetuming on the 1st of
August, I went to look at the nest and found but very few wasps
about, and these were extremely inactive. On visiting it a few
days later I saw that all the wasps were gone. I then cut off the
branch with the nest and had them mounted in a case.
The wasps appeared to me to be darker in colour than the
ground-wasp, the yellow being of rather a duller hue, while the
black bands were somewhat wider.
A short time after my wasp*s nest was discovered, I was asked
by Mr. and Mrs. Osborne, of Widcombe Lodge, Watford, to see
another nest, apparently of the same species of wasp, which had
been built in the pantry window between the glass and some
lattice-work with a spray or two of ivy across it, the nest being
attached to the glass on one side and to the lattice-work on the
other. These wasps did not molest the inmates of the house, but
Mrs. Osborne informed me that they were obliged to have them
destroyed, as their neighbours complained that they would eat
their fruit. In this I think that the neighbours were wrong, and
I am somewhat at a loss to know what these wasps feed on, for,
with an abundant crop of peaches, nectarines, and plums all around
them, I never saw one of them on a fruit, while the ground-wasp
is a voracious thief. — Daniel Silly Watford.
Metbokologt.
Mead at Watford, 26lh March, 1895.
Temperature and Rainfall at Mitchin, 1850-94. — The last five
seasons show the temperature of the three winter months to have
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
204 HI8CELLAKEOX7S NOTES AlO) 0B8ERVA.TI0NS.
been lower than the average during the previous forty years, the
mean minimum during those years being 15^*1, while for the forty-
five years it stands at 14^*4, the mean maximum being unaltered.
Last February was the coldest month ever recorded here, its
mean temperature being 26°'6. The nearest approach to it was
in the Crimean winter of 1855, when the mean temperature of
February was 27^-0; this was also the mean of December, 1890.
The following are the instances of months showing a mean
temperature below freezing point: —
1866 Feb. 27°0 1874 Dec. 29-2 1880 Jan. 31°2 1890 Dec. 270
1861 Jan. 31*3 1878 Dec. 31-0 1881 Jan. 28*1 1891 Jan. 31*3
1870 Dec. 30-9 1879 Jan. 28*9 1886 Feb. 308 1895 Jan. 309
1871 Jan. 31*3 „ Dec. 297 „ Mar. 30*8 „ Feb. 26*5
With regard to the rainfall, the mean of forty years was
24*80 inches ; it is now, for forty-five years, 24*69 inches.
I am afraid we are forced to come to the conclusion that our
seasons are becoming colder and drier. — William Lucas, Hitchin,
Supplementary Note on Temperature and Rainfall at Hitchin,
— When giving, in our * Transactions * (Vol. VI, pp. 72, 73),
a summary of the observations of Mr. Lucas for the forty years,
1850-89, I stated that they did not show that the temperature or
the rainfall in the north of Hertfordshire was undergoing any
secular change, but that a connection could be traced between the
temperature and the rainfall, cold periods being wet and warm
periods being dry. The extended observations fully bear out these
inferences, for if the forty-five years be divided into three equal
periods of fifteen years each, it will be found that for the
first period the mean temperature was 47°* 1, the mean rainfall,
23°-75 ins. ; for the second period the mean temperature was 46^*9,
the mean rainfall, 25*78 ins. ; and for the third period the mean
temperature was, as in the first period, 47^*1, the mean rainfall,
24*54 ins., being very nearly the mean of the first two periods
together. That wet periods are on the average cold, and dry
periods warm, is shown more strikingly if the forty-five years
be divided into five periods of nine years eachj as follows : —
1850-58 Mean Temperatore 47°' 1 Mean Bainfall 24*42 ina.
1859-67 „ „ 4r'*3 „ „ 24*27 „
1868-76 „ „ 47°*1 „ „ 24*18 „
1877-85 „ „ 4i>^*9 „ „ 26*27 „
1886-94 „ „ 4r*7 „ „ 23-31 „
It will be seen that both the temperature and the rainfall of the
first three periods of nine years each were about the same in each
period; that in the fourth period the temperature was very low
and the rainfall very heavy; and that in the fifth and last
period the temperature was rather high and the rainfall rather
small. — John Hophinson, 8t, Albans.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX.
A.
Accentor modularis, habits of, 1 57.
Accipiter nisus, habits of, 160.
Achcrontia atropos at St. Albans, 79.
Adaptation to surroundings, curious
instance of, in larree, 7d.
Additions to the Library in 1893, XTiii ;
in 1894, Ivi.
Address, Anniyersary, 1894, 86 ; 1895,
169.
AgaricuB (Leptonia) euehrous found
near Aldbury, xl.
Age of bronze, 1 ; of stone, 169.
AgrotU puta new to Herts, 76 ; A.
obtcura on Hertford Heath, 190.
Air in towns, pollution of, xlvi.
Albinism in birds, 54, 152.
Alcedo inpida in Herts, 53.
Aldbury visited, xxxviii ; list of fungi
collected near, xxxix.
Aldenham, rainfall at, in 1894, 131 ;
gale of March 24, 1895, at, 201.
Ampclia garrulus near Hertford, 50.
Anaitis plagiata at Watford, 191.
Animal, a wonderful, 85.
AnniTersary Meetings, Feb. 27, 1894,
xiv ; Feb. 26, 1895, ^ J Address,
1894, 85; 1895, 169.
Apsley Mills, Hemel Hempstead, rain-
fall at, in 1893, 36; in 1894, 134.
Aquatic mammals, x.
Archeeology, pre-historic, defined, 1.
Armlets of bronze, 8.
Arrow-heads of bronze, 8 ; of flint, 178.
Ashrid^e Park visited, xxxriii ; list of
fungi collected in and near, xxxix.
Ashwell, phenological observations at,
in 1894, 194.
Attfibld, Prof. J., remarks on
softening of hard water, xlix, li.
Auk, little, near Royston, 51.
Autumn of 1893, ^^> ^^ i ^^ ^^f
164, 198.
Awls of bronze, 6.
Axes of bronze, 6.
Ayot, derivation of the name, xxiii.
Ayot St. Lawrence visited, xxiv.
Ayot St. Peter visited, xxiii.
Ayres, C. p., remarks on softening of
hard water, 1.
VOL. Tin. — ^PABT IX.
B.
Bacteriology, of recent growth, 14.
Badhamia nitena at Caddington and
near Kensworth, 66 ; B. uiricularis^
living Plasmodium of, shown by
lantern, 70.
Balance-sheet for 1893, xvii ; 1894, Iv.
Bamet, New, rainfall at, in 1893, ^^i
in 1894, 134; climatolo^cal observa-
tions at, in 1893, 47 ; in 1894, 127.
Bayfordbury, Hertford, rainfall at, in
1893, 36; in 1894, 134.
Bedfordshire, Mycetozoa of, 71.
Bbldbrsox, W. J.,on wasp -infestation
of 1893 at Elstree, 24.
Bennington, rainfall at, in 1893, 36;
in 1894, 134; climatological observa-
tions at, in 1893, 47 ; in 1894, 127.
Berkhamsted, wasp-infestation at, 23 ;
phenological observations at, in
1893, ^^ ' ^^ ^^^^' ^^^ * rainfall
at, in 1893, 36; in 1894, 134; gale
of March 24, 1895, ^^ l^^-
Bemicla canadetitiB at Roj'ston, 49.
Birds, memorial to Herts County
Council for protection of, Ixi ;
observed at field meetings, xxvi, Ixvi :
observed in Herts in 1893, 49 ; in
1894, 147 ; frequenting the neigh-
bourhood of Heronsgate, 165.
Bittern at Tring Reservoirs, 160.
Blackbven, H., remarks on softening
of hard water, 1.
Blastopore of the frog's egg, 129.
Blathwayt, a. p., remarks on
softening of hard water, 1.
Blocks, erratic, recording of, xlvii.
Blow, T. B., on wasp-infestation of
1893 at Welwyn, 25.
Boa constrictor f feeding of, xlviii.
Botaurut stcllaris at Tring Reservoirs,
160.
Bracelets of bronze, 8.
Brain, its weight in man, 94.
Brett, Dr. A. T., remarks on the
Bronze Age, ix ; on wasp-infestatiun
of 1893 at Watford, 23.
British Association, Oxford, 1894,
report on Conferences of Delegates
to, xli.
16
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
206
TKDEX.
British hut-f oundationB near Dunstable,
zxix.
British Museum (Natural History)
visited, in 1894, xxi ; in 1895, ^^•
BaiTTON and Bbatlbt (quoted) on
Dunstable Priory Church, box.
Brocket Hall, Welwyn, rainfall at, in
1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Brocket Park, Welwyn, visited, xxt.
Bronze Age, 1 ; chronology of, 9.
Bronze, composition of, 1 ; method of
casting weapons of, 11.
Beown, a. M., on the springs at
Trine^, xxxiv ; entertainment of
members by, xxxv.
Bbown, T., on wasp-infestation of
1893 ftt Hatfield, 26.
Broxbonme, phenological obserrations
at, in 1893, 2d; ^ i^) ^^^'f
rainfall at, in 1893, 36 ; in 1804, 134.
Buckinghamshire, Mycetozoa of, 72.
BuUiinch, habits of, 158.
Buntingford, rainfall at, in 1893, 36 ;
in 1S94, 134 ; gale of March 24,
1895, at, 201.
Bupalus piniaria at Chipperfleld, 191.
Butterflies observed in 1893, 76; in
1894, 188.
Buxton, J. H., on preservation of our
rare and beautiful birds, Ix.
BcxTON, T. F., on preservation of
our useful birds, Ix.
Bye-meetings, 1894, April 21, Natural
History Museum, South Kensington,
xxi; June 16, Zoological Qardens,
Kegent's Park, xxx ; 1895, ^pril 27,
Natural History Museum, South
Kensington, Ixii.
Caddington visited, xxvii ; ancient lake
at, xxvii ; flint implemente made at,
xxvii ; geology of, xxviii ; in Roman
and in Saxon times, xxix; palaeo-
lithic implements found at, 184.
Cahdria arenaria in Herts, 64.
Cam district, rainfall in, in 1893, ^^ 1*
in 1894, 137.
Cameron, A. 0. G., remarks on the
geology of Caddington, xxviii.
Canada goose shot at Royston, 49.
Cataloguing specimens in local
museums, xlii.
Cauldrons of bronze, 9.
Celts of bronze, 4 ; of stone, 173.
CerthiafamUiaria ix Bricket Wood, 62.
Chaffinch, habits of, 157.
Charaaa fframinitf infestation of, in
1894, 190.
Cheimatobia boreata new to Herts, 76.
Cheshnnt, rainfall at, in 1893, 36 ; in
1894, 134.
Chisels of stone, 174.
Chronology of Bronze Age, 9.
Chryaomitris elegana^ habits of, 167.
Circulation of museum specimens, xlii.
Cireua eyaneua^ habits of, 169.
Cirl-bunting near Tring, 149.
CUmgula glaueim on Tring Reservoirs,
161.
Classification in local museums, referees
for, xliii.
Climatological observations in Herts,
in 1893, ^^ > ^ i^* 1'^^-
Coecothrauatea vulgaria in Herts, 52.
CoUybia Umgipea in Grove Park,
Watford, IxxL
Colne district, rain^ in, in 1893, ^^ !
in 189^, 137.
Colne valley, floods of November, 1894,
in, 144'; palteolithic implements
found in, 182.
Conferences of Delegates to British
Association, Oxford, 1894, repoi^
on, xli.
Copper Age, 3 ; implements, origin
Corvua corax near Tring, 149 ; C
frugiUgua^ habits of, 158.
Council elected, 1894, xiv; 1895, ^^«
report of, for 1893, xv ; for 1894, Hi.
County Councils, their relations with
local museums, xliv.
Cowroast, Tring, rainfall at, in 1893,
36 ; in 1894, 134.
Crepia taraxacifoUa near Wheathamp-
stead, XXV.
Cribraria violaeea on Ivinghoe Hills, 69.
Crossbills at Tring, 148 ; near Berk-
hamsted, 149.
Cbossman, a. F., remarks on destruc-
tion of birds, Ix ; ornithological
notes by, Ixvi: on the crossbill, 149.
Cryptogamic plants, lists of, xxxix,
Ixvii, Ixxii, 71.
Crystals and precious stones, xiii.
CueuUia verbtuci at Hitchin, 191 ; C.
M«momt/to at Watford, 191.
Cygnua muaieua near Hertford, 51.
Dabchick, nests of, Ixvi,
Daggers of bronze, 7.
Danesbury, Welwyn, rainfall at, in
i8q3, 38; in 1894, 131.
Datch worth, rainfall at, in 1893, 36;
in 1894, 134.
Days of rain in 1893, 39 ; in 1894, 137.
Death-rate in large towns, 114.
Detopeia pulchella at East Barnet, 76.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IVDBZ.
207
Delaporty Wbeathampstead, yiflited,
XX vi.
Dendi-ocopus major and minor in Herts,
63 ; i>. minor y habits of, 169.
Dieranura fureula at Hitchin, 190.
Drift beds at Caddington, xxvili.
Droughts in 1893, 33 ; in 1894^ 132.
Duck, tufted, on Trine Eeservoir, 150.
Dundale spring near Tring, xxxir.
Dunlin at Redooum, 54.
Dunstable visited, xxx, Ixvii ; west
front of its Priory Chnrch described,
Ixix.
Dyke near Wheathampstead, xxtI.
E.
Ear-rings of bronze, 8.
Earth-tremors, their investigation, xlvi.
Elstree, wasp-visitation at, 24 ; rain-
fall at, in 1894, 131.
Emheriza eirlus near Tring, 149; E.
citrinella, habits of, 158.
England, death-rate in large towns
of, 114.
JErithacut rubeeuhf pugnacity of, 151.
Erratic blocks, recoraing of, xlvii.
Ethnographical Survey, xlviii.
Eupithecia minutata new to Herts, 76 ;
E. putillata at Watford, new to
Herts, 192.
Etans, Sir John: The Bronze Age,
ix, 1-12 ; remarks on local museums,
ilv ; Anniversary Address — The
Stone Age in Hertfordshire, lii,
169-187.
Expenditure in 1893, xvii ; in 1894, Iv.
F.
Fairhill, Berkhamsted, rainfall at, in
1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Fanhams Hall, Ware, rainfall at, in
1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Feilde's Weir, Hoddesdon, rainfall at,
in 1894, 131.
Field Meetings, 1894, April 28, Ayot
St. Peter and Ayot St. Lawrence,
xxiii ; May 19, Brocket Park and
Wheathampstead, xxv ; May 26,
Luton, Caadington, and Dunstable,
xxvii ; June 23, Tring, zxxiii ;
Junejo, Stevenage, the Wymondleys,
and Hitchin, xxxv ; Oct. 13, Aldbiury
and Ashridge Park, xxxviii ; 1895,
May II, Tewin and Panshan^er,
Ixiii ; June 8, Great Gaddesden,
Nettleden, and Frithsden, Ixiv ;
June i<, Luton Hoo, Ixvi ; June 22,
Dunstable and Tottemhoe, Ixvii ;
Oct. 19, The Grove, Watford, Ixi.
Fieldfare at St. Albans, 52.
Files of bronze, 6.
Flint implements, how manufactured,
171 ; flakes, how struck off flint, 172.
Floods of November, 1894, in Hert<,
141.
Flowbe, Sir W., reception of members
by, xxi, Ixii.
Flowering plants, lists of, xxiv, xxxviii,
Ixvii.
Fratermla aretiea near Hertford, 52 ;
at St. Albans, 152.
Fringilla calehsy habits of, 157.
Frog's G^gf blastopore and hypoblast
of, 129.
Fuligula firina on Tring Reservoirs,
150 ; near Watford, 152 ; F. crittata
on Tring Reservoirs, 150.
Fungi of Aldbury and Ashridge Park,
xxxix ; of Grove Park and Woods,
Watford, Ixxu.
G.
(raddesden. Great, visited, Ixv ; its
church described, Ixv; rainfall at,
in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Gade valley, floods of I^ovember, 1894,
in, 144 ; palsBolithic implements
found in, 182.
Gale of March 24, 1895, ^ Herts,
199.
Gales in Herts in 1893, 42, 43.
QalUnago e<Bli$tia and gallinula in
Herts, 54.
Oeemut viridU in Herts, 53.
Geography, teachiug of, in schools,
xlviii.
Geological photographs, xlvii.
Geology of Caddin^n, xxviii ; of
Hitcnin Hill, xxxvii; of Tottemhoe,
Ixvii.
G1BB8, A. E. : The Wasp Infestation
of 1893, xxi. 22-26; Notes on
Lepidoptera observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1893, xxi,
74-84 ; . . . during the year 1894,
Ixi, 188-192.
GiLLUM, Col., list of Lepidoptera
captured by, in 1893, 76.
Golden-eye on Tring Reservoirs, 151.
Goldfinch, habits of, 157.
Goose, Canada, shot at Royston, 49.
Gorhambury, St. Albans, rainfall at,
in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Grasshopper- warbler, habits of, 156.
Great Gaddesden, 9ee Gaddesden.
Grimston, Lady Anne, her tomb at
Tewiu Church, liiv.
Gun-flints, how manufactured, 172.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
208
INDEX.
H.
Hadena dUaimilia new to Herts, 76.
Hadham, Much, rainfall at, in 1893,
36; in 1894, 134.
Haileybury, Hertford, rainfall at, in
1893* 38.
Halberds of bronze, 8 ; of stone, 172.
Hamels Park, Buntingford, rainfall at,
in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Hammers of bronze, 6 ; of stone, 174.
Hard and soft water, relative ad-
Tantaees of, 101.
Harpenden, phonological obsenrations
at, in 1893, 28 ; in 1894, 194 ; rain-
fall at, in 1893, 36, 38; in 1894, 131,
134 ; gale of March 24, 1895, ^^ 2^^-
Haevey, D. H. : The Lower Micro-
organisms and their Belation to
Every-day Life, xi, 13-16.
Hatchets of bronze, 6; of stone, 172.
Hatfield, wasp-infestation at, 25 ;
rainfall at, in 1893, 36 ; in 1894,
134 ; phonological observations at,
in 1894, 194 ; gale of March 24,
1895, »^> 201-
Hawtiuch in Herts, 62.
Hawk-moths observed in 1893, 79.
Hearing, sense of, in man, 9s.
Heaton, N., list of Lepidoptera cap-
tured by, in 1893, 76.
Hedge-sparrow, habits of, 167.
ffeltx pomatia at Luton Hoo, Ixvii.
Hemel Hempstead, rainfall at, in 1893,
36 ; in 1894, 134 ; gale of March 24,
1895, at, 200.
Hen-harrier, habits of, 169.
Heronsgate, birds &eauenting, 166.
Hertfora, phenological observations at,
in 1893, 28 ; in 1894, 194 ; rainfall
at, in 1893, 36, 38 ; in 1894, 134 ;
gale of March 24, 1895, at, 201.
Hertfordshire, wasp-infestation of 1893
in, 22 ; phenological observations in,
in 1893, 27 ; in 1894, 193 ; rainfall
in, in 1893, 33 ; in 1894, 131 ;
climatological observations in, in
1893, 46 ; in 1894, 126 ; birds
observed in, in 1893, *^ J ^ 1894,
147 ; meteorological observations in,
in 1893, 67 ; in 1894, 161 ; Myceto-
zoa of, 71 ; Lepidoptera observed
in, in 1893, 74; in 1894, 188;
floods of November, 1804, in, 141 ;
Stone Age in, 169 ; gale of March
24, 1895, in, 199.
High Down, Hitchin, rainfall at, in
1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Hill, D. : Tree Wasp's Nest at Herga,
Watford, xlviii, 203 ; remarks on
softening of hard water, 1.
Hill, W., on geology of Hitchin
Hill, iixvii.
Hitchin, wasp -infestation of 1893 at,
26 ; phenological observations at, in
1893, 28; in 1894, 194; rainfall
at. in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Hitchin HUl clay-pits visited, iiivii ;
ancient lake at, xxxvii.
Hoddesdon, rainfall at, in 1894, 131.
HoPKiNSON, J. : Report on Uie Rain-
fall in Hertfordshire in the year
1893, xii, 33-44 ; ... in the year
1894, Ix, 131-140; Climatological
Ol^rvations taken in Hertfordshire
in the year 1893, xxi, 46-48 ; . . .
in the year 1894, Ixi, 126-128;
Meteorological Observations taken at
The Grange, St. Albans, daring the
year 1893, xxi, 67-64 ; . . . during
the year 1894, Ixi, 161-168; Report
on the Conferences of Delegate to
the British Association at Oxford in
1894, xli-xlviii ; The Relative
Advantages of Hard and Soft
Water, with Special Reference to
the Supply of Watford, xlix, li,
101-115 ; The Floods of November,
1894, in Hertfordshire, Ix, 131-140 ;
The Gale of March 24, 1895, in
Hertfordshire, Ixi. 199-202; Tem-
perature and Rainfall at Hitchin,
Ix, 204.
Hughes, W. : Herbert Spencer : a
Sketch of his Life and Work (titie
only), xli.
Hutchinson, Rev. H. S., Extinct
Monsters (title only), Ix.
Hut-foundations, British, near Dun-
stable, xxix.
Hypoblast of the frog's egg, 129.
Iguanodon described, bdi.
Income and expenditure in 1893, xvir;
in 1894, Iv.
Infestation of wasps in 1893, 22.
Ivel district, rainfall in, in 1893, 39 ;
in 1894, 137.
Eensworth, rainfall at, in 1893, 36 ;
in 1894, 134.
Kino, Dr. A. : On the Advantages of
a Supply of Soft Water for the
Town of Watford, xlviii, li, 116-124.
Kingfisher in Herts, 63.
Knives of bronze, 6.
Kytes, Watford, rainfall at, in 1893,
38 ; in 1894, 131.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX.
209
Laxb, F. Q., on wasp-iDfestation of
1893 A^ Berkhamsted, 23.
Lanree abundant in 1893, 74 ; carious
instance of adaptation to surroundings
in, 76.
Lea district, rainfall in, in 1893, ^9 ;
in 1894, 137.
Lea valley, floods of November, 1894,
in, 145 ; paloeolithic implements
found in, 183.
Lectures in local museums, xliv.
Lepidoptera observed in Herts in 1893,
74 ; in 1894, 188.
Lewis, H. : Notes on Birds observed
in Hertfordshire during the year
1893, ™» 49-56 ; . . . during the
J rear 1894, Ix, 147-154 ; omitho-
ogical notes by, xxvi ; on wasp-
in testation of 1893 at St. Albans, 22.
Library, additions to, in 1893, xviii ;
in 1894, Ivi.
Limerick, Earl and Countess of,
reception of members by, Ixiv.
Local museums, xlii.
Locustella naiia, habits of, 163.
Zoxia eurvirostra at Tring, 148 ; near
Berkhamsted, 149.
Lucas, W. : Temperature and Rainfall
at Hitchin, 1850-94, Ix, 203-204.
Luton visited, xxvii ; St. Mary's
Church at, noticed, xx\'ii.
Lycana corydon at Lilley Hoo, 78.
M.
Macroghasa ttellatarttm abundant in
1893, 80.
Maiden Bower, Dunstable, visited,
Ixvii.
Mammals, aquatic, x.
Man, as an animal, 85 ; his senses, 89 ;
his progress and decay, 95 ; Ids
future extermination due to civili-
zation, 97 ; his great antiquity, 185.
March 24, 1895, gale of, in Herts,
199.
Harden Hill visited, Ixiv : rainfall at,
in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Masses, G., lists of fungi by, xxxix,
Ixxii ; remarks- on collection of fungi,
Ixxi.
Mawlet, E. : Report on Phenological
i'henomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1893, xxi,
27-32 ; . . . during the vear 1894,
Ixi, 193-198 ; gule of March 24,
1895, ** Berkhamsted, 199.
Melanism in Lepidoptera, 192.
Merffultu alle near Royston, 51.
Mergua albelltu near Watford, 51.
Meteorological photography, xlvi ;
observations taken at The Grange,
St. Albans, in 1893, ^7 ; in 1894,
161.
Micro-organisms, the lower, 13.
Migrants, summer, arrival and de-
parture, in 1893, 54; in 1894, 153.
Mimicking of song by birds, 54.
Miscellaneous notes and observations,
203.
Moat near Wheathampstead, xxvi.
MoUusca found at Luton Hoo, Ixvii.
Moor Park, Rickmans worth, rainfall
at, in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Motacilla melanope near Tring Reser-
voirs, 148.
Moths observed in 1893, 80 ; in 1894,
189.
Much Hadham, see Hadham.
Museum lectures and demonstrations,
xliv.
Museums, local, xlii ; methods of
making attractive, xliii ; relations
with County Councils, xliv.
Mycetozoa, found near Aldbury, xl ;
notes on, 65; list of Herts species,
71 ; of Beds species, 71 ; of Bucks
species, 72.
Myosurus minimus at Ayot St. Peter,
XXV.
N.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, rainfall
at, in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Natural History Museum, South
Kensington, visited, xxi, Ixii.
Natural history of the salmon, 17.
Neolithic or surface-stone period, 170.
Nest of tree-wasp at "Watford, 203.
New Bamet, see Bamet.
Nomenclature, referees for, xliii.
Nonagna arundinis at St. Albans, 190.
Northchurch, rainfall at, in 1894, 131.
Notes and observations, miscellaneous,
203.
November, 1894, floods of, in Herts,
Ul.
Nutting, — , on wasp-infestation of
1893 a^ 3^- Albans, 22.
0.
Oaklands, "Watford, rainfall at, in
1893, 36; in 1894, 131.
Observations, ' phenological, in Herts,
in 1893, ^7 : in 1894, 193 ; climato-
logical, in Herts, in 1893, 45; in
1894, 125; meteorological, at St.
Albans, in 1893, 67 ; in 1894, 161 ;
miscellaneous, 203.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
210
INDEX.
Odsey, phenoloeieal observatioiiB at,
in 1893, 28; in 1894, 194; rainfall
at, in 1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Ordinary meetings, 1893, ii-ii ; 1894,
xi-riv, xi-xxi, xH-ilviii, 1895,
xlviii-li, Ix-lxi.
Ornithological notes, xxTi, Ixri.
P.
FalsBolitliic implements at Oaddington,
ixviii, 184.
PalsBolithic or old Stone Age, 180.
Palstaves of bronze, 6.
Panshanger Park visited, liir.
Papers, Hat of, read in 1893, iv ; in
1894, liii.
Partridge, instance of deception in, 53.
Fmser nwntanu* in Herts, 62.
Peek, C, on local museums, xlii.
Peudley Manor, Tring, rainfall at, in
1893, 36 ; in 1894, 134.
Ferdix einereUy deception in, 63.
Fhasianus coichicus, varieties of, 63.
Pheasant, varieties of, 63.
Phenological phenomena observed in
Herts in 1893, 27 ; in 1894, 193.
Photographs, geological, ilvii.
Photography, meteorological, ilvi.
Fhylloscopm sibiUUrix at St. Albans,
62.
Pins of bronze, 9.
Plants, cryptogamic, lists of, xxxix.
Ixvii, Ixxii, 71 ; flowering, lists of,
ixiv, xxxviii, Ixvii.
Plasmodium of Mycetozoa, 70.
Flectrophams nivalit in Herts, 62.
Pochard on Tring Reservoirs, 160;
near Watford, 152.
Pollution of air in towns, xlvi.
Frays curtisellm, ravages of, 192.
Pre-historic archteologj' defined, 1.
President's Address, 1894, 85.
I*rotection of birds, Ixi.
Puffin near Hertford, 62 ; at St. Albans,
152.
Fyrrhula europaa, habits of, 168.
Querqwdula rr^cca on Tring Reservoirs,
150.
R.
Radlett, phenological observations at,
in 1893, 28; in 1894, 194.
Rainfall in Herts in 1893, 33; in
1894, 131 ; at Hitchin, 1850-94,
203, 204.
Ransom, W., entertainment of members
by, xxxviii.
Raven ^ear Tring, 149.
Redbreast, pugnacity of, 161.
Red House, Ware, rainfall at, in 1893,
36 ; in 1894, 134.
Redstart, black, at Heronsgate, 49.
Registration of spedmens in local
museums, xlii.
Relative advantages of hard and soft
water, 101.
Report of the Council for 1893, xv ;
for 1894, lii ; on phenological phe-
nomena in 1893, 27 ; in 1894, 193 ;
on the rainfall in Herts in 1893, 33 ;
in 1894, 131.
Rickmansworth, rainfall at, in 189^,
36 ; in 1894, 134 ; gale of March
24, 1895, at, 201.
Rivers, how they deepen ttieir courses,
180.
Robins, Mr. and Mrs. IJ., entertain-
ment of members by, ixvi.
Rook, habits of, 168.
RoopEii, G. : The Natural History of
the Salmon, xx, 17-21.
Rothamsted, Harpenden, rainfall at,
in 1893, 36, 38; in 1894, 131. 134.
Royston, rainfall at, in 1893, 36 ; in
1894, 134 ; climatological observa-
tions at, in 1893, 45 ; in 1894, 125 ;
gale of March 24, 1895, at, 200.
Riues of the Society, revised Jan. 23,
1894, xii.
Russell, J. B. : The Blastopore of
the Frog*s Egg in relation to the
Hypoblast, Ixi, 129 130.
Buticilla tityt at Heronsgate, 49.
S.
St. Albans, ordinary meeting at, in
1893, X ; in 1895, xl ; wasp-infesta-
tion at, 22; phenological observa-
tions at, in 1893, 28; in 1894, 194;
rainfall at, in 1893, ^^'* ^^ iS94>
134 ; climatological observations at,
in 1893, 46 ; in 1894, 126 ; meteoro-
logical observations at, in 1893, ^7 ;
in 1894, 161 ; gale of March 24,
1895, at, 200, 201.
Salmon, natural history of, 17.
Sanderling in Herts, 54.
Sandpiper, green, in Herts, 64.
Sandridge, gale of March 24, 1895,
at, 201.
Satui-nia pavonia at St. Albans, 189.
Saunde&s, J. : Further Notes on the
Mycetozoa, with a List of Species
from Herts, Beds, and Bucks, xi,
65-73 ; lists of Mycetozoa, xl, Ixvii ;
of flowering plants and MoUusca,
Ixvii.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DTDEZ.
211
Saws of bronze, 6.
Scolopax ruttieuia at Tring Reeerrolis,
151.
Scrapers of flint, 176.
Setenia illuntraria new to Herts, 76.
Shsbriff, T. F., on encounter between
wasp and bee, 24.
Sbields of bronze, 8.
SHiLLrroB, R., on wasp-infestation
of 1893 A^ HitcMn, 25.
Shoveller on Tring Reserroirs, 160.
Sickles of bronze, 7.
Sight, sense of, in man, 89.
SiLYESTBR, F. W., on wasp-infesta-
tiou of 1893 at St. Albans, 23 ; on
gale of March 24, 1895, at St.
Albans, 200.
Smallford, wasp -infestation at, 25.
Smell, sense of, in man, 93.
SmerinthuiyjBm.y in Herts, 79.
Smew near "Watford, 51.
Smith, A., on wasp -infestation of 1893
at Smallford, 25.
Smith, "W. G., remarks on geology
and pre-historic archaeology of Cad-
dington, xxvii ; his discoveries of flint
implements at Caddington, 184.
Snipes in Herts, 54.
Snow-bunting in Herts, 52.
Soft and hard water, relative advantages
of, 101.
Soft water, advantage of supply for
Watford, 116.
Southgate, rainfall at, in 1893, 36;
in 1894, 134.
Sparrow-hawk, habits of, 160.
Spatula clypeata at Tring Reservoirs,
150.
Spear-heads of bronze, 8.
Special meeting in 1894, xi.
Specimens in local museums, registra-
tion and cataloguing, xlii ; protection
from injury and dust, xlii; circulation
for educational purposes, xlii ; nomen-
clature and classification, xliii.
Speech, sense of, in man, 94.
Spencer, S. H., Ust of Lepidoptera
captured by, in 1893, 75 ; on
melanism in moths, 192.
Spring of 1893, 30, 60 ; of 1894, 164,
196.
Stevenage, rainfall at, in 1893, 36;
in 1894, 134.
Stone Age in Herts, 169 ; Neolithic,
171; PalsBolithic, 180.
Stradlino, a.: Anniversary Address—
A Wonderful Animal, xiv, 85-100 ;
remarks on the Bronze Age, ix ;
demonstrations in Natural History
Museum, xxii, Ixii; in Zoological
Gardens, zxx.
Stradlino, Mr. and Mrs., entertain-
ment of members by, xxxii.
Strobilomyee* ttrobilacem in Grove
Park, Watford, Ixii.
Sugaring in 1893, 74 ; in 1894, 188.
Summer of 1893, 31, 60 ; of 1894,
164, 197.
Summer migrants, arrival and departure
of, in 1893, 54 ; in 1894, 153.
Survey, ethnographical, xlviii.
Swan, whooper, near Hertford, 51.
Swiss lake-dwellings, 9.
SwoRDER, Mr. and Mrs. C, reception
of members by, xxxv.
Swords of bronze, 7.
Sylvia cinerM, habits of, 156.
Tteniocampa, sps., in 1894, 190.
Tarrant, K. J., on the storm of
October 7, 1893, at Bushey, 44.
Taste, sense of, in man, 93.
Teal on Tring Reservoirs, 150.
Temperature at Hitchin, 1850-94, 203,
204.
Tertiary beds at Caddington, xxviii.
Tewin Church visited, Ixiv ; tomb of
Lady Ann Grimston at, Ixiv.
Tewin Water visited, Ixiv.
Thame district, rainfall at, in 1893, 39 ;
in 1894, 137.
Therfield, rainfall at, in 1893, 36;
in 1894, 134.
Throcking, rainfall at, in 1893, 36;
in 1894, 134.
Thunderstorms in 1893, 41, 43, 62, 63 ;
in 1894, 139.
ToPLEY, W., obituary notice of, liii.
Torques of bronze, 8.
Totanus ockropua in Herts, 64.
Tottemhoe Stone quarries, Dunstable,
visited, Lxix.
Towns, pollution of air in, xlvi ; death-
rate in, 114.
Tree-creeper at Bricket Wood, 52.
Tree -sparrow in Herts, 52.
Tree-wasp's nest at Watford, 203.
Tribulum described, 173.
Tring, rainfall at, in 1893, 36 ; in
1894, 134 ; birds observed near,
in 1894, 148.
Tring Zoological Museum visited,
xxxiii.
Tringa alpina at Redboum, 64,
Trumpets of bronze, 8.
Turdtu pilaris at St. Albans, 52.
U.
Under^ound waters, investigation of,
xlvii.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
212
iin)£z.
V.
Vanessa polyehloros getting scarce, 78 ;
at St. Albans, 188 ; V. lo at Hitchin,
189 ; V. cardui and atalanta in
Herts, 189.
Verey, a. S. : Notes on Birds
frequenting the neighbourhood of
Heronsgate, Herts, Ix, 166-160 ;
on the black redstart (Ruticilla titys)
in Herts, 49; on larvae of bird's-
wing moth, 82.
Verini, W., remarks on softening of
hard water, U.
Visitants, winter, arrival in 1893, 66;
in 1894, 154.
W.
"Wagtail, grey, near Tring Reservoirs,
148.
Wailes, G. H. : Crystals and Precious
Stones, xiii-xiv.
"Ware, rainfall at, in 1893, 36; in
1894, 134 ; gale of March 24,
1895, at, 201.
Wasp-infestation of 1899^ 22.
"Water End, Hemel Hempstead, visited,
Ixv.
"Water End House, "Wheathampstead,
xnsited, xxv.
"Water, relative advantages of hard
and soft, 101 ; hardness of "Watford
supply, 101 ; of London supply,
102 ; whether hard or soft best for
drinking, 105 ; taste of hard and
soft, 1 12 ; analyses of, from chalk
wells and springs in Herts, 113;
hardness of, supplied to London in
1892, 114; impurity and hardness
of, from chalk wells and rivers,
before and after softening with lime,
115.
"Water, hard, softened by boiling, 102;
by soap, 102 ; by carbonate of soda,
103; by lime, 104; by distillation,
106; does not form bone, 108;
causes dyspepsia, 109; avoided by
horses and dogs, 109; expense of
softening by lime, 110.
"Water, soft, more economical than
hard, 102 ; its action upon lead, 112 ;
its advantages, 116; Lord Playfair
quoted on its advantages for healUi,
120 ; M. Soyer quoted on its
advantages for cooking, 121 ; sum-
mary of its advantages for healthy
convenience, and economy, 124.
"Waters, underground, investigation of,
xlvii.
"Watford, ordinary meetings at, in
1893, ii-^; in 1894, xi, xiii-xiv,
xx-xxi, xli-xlviii; in 1895, ilviii-li,
li-lxi ; wasp-infestation at, 23 ; phe-
nological observations at, in 1893.
28 ; in 1894, 194 ; rainfall at, in
1893, 36. 38; in 1894, 131, 134:
relative advantages of hard and soft
water for, 101 ; advantages of a
supply of soft water for, 116 ; gale
of March 24, 1895, at, 201 ; nest
of tree-wasp at, 203.
Waxwing near Hertford, 60.
"Welwyn, wasp-infestation at, 26 ; rain-
fall at, in 1893, 36, 38; in 1S94,
131, 134; gale of March 24, 1895,
at, 201.
Weston Park, Stevenage, rainfall at,
in 1893, 36; in 1894, 134.
Wettest days in 1893, 38 ; in 1894, 136.
"Wheathampstead visited, xxvi.
Whitethroat, habits of, 166.
Winter of 1892-93,27,60; of 1893-94,
164, 193.
Winter visitants, arrival of, in 1893,
66; in 1894, 164.
Woodcock at Tring Reservoirs, 161.
Woodpeckers, at St. Albans, 63 ; habits
of, 169.
Woodward, Dr. H., remarks on the
iguanodon, Ixii.
Wood- wren at St. Albans, 62.
Wymondley, Great, visited, ixxvii ;
Little, visited, xxxv ; old Spanish
chestnut near, xxxv ; Priory visited,
xxxvi.
"Yellow-hammer, habits of, 168.
Z.
Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park,
visited, xxx.
Zygana trifolix at Watford, 189.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
APPENDIX.
LIST OF MEMBERS
OP THB
HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
AND FIELD CLUB.
Octobke, 1896.
TOL. Tin. — PART IX. 17
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
PAST PEESrOENTS.
1875-77. SIK JOHN EYANS, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D.,
Trea8.R.S., Y.P.S.A.
1877-79. ALFRED T. BRETT, M.D.
1879-81. J. GWYN JEFFREYS, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
1881-83. GEORGE ROOFER, F.Z.S.
1883-85. RIGHT HON. THE EARL COWPER, K.G.
1885-87. PROF. JOHN ATTFIELD, M.A., Ph.D.,F.R.S.,F.C.S.
1887-89. F. MAULE CAMPBELL, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.
1889-91. RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF CLARENDON.
1891-93. JOHN HOPEINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
1893-95. ARTHUR STRADLING, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
1895. HENRY SEEBOHM, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Sec.ILG.S.
TRUSTEES.
JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.
W. LEPARD SMITH.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
HONOEAEY MEMBERS.
Elected
1875 Allman, George James, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S., M.R.I.A., Emeritus Professor of Natural
History, University of Edinburgh, Ardmorey Park-
stanef Dorset ; and Athenaum Cluhy London, 8, W,
1882 Cooke, M. C, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., Eerharium, Royal
Gardens, Kew ; and 146, Junction Road, London, N,
1879 Etheridge, Robert, F.R.8., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., British
Museum {Natural History), South Kensington ; and
14, Carlyle Square, Chelsea, London, S. 7F.
1893 Flower, Sir William Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.C.8., F.L.8., F.G.S., Pres.Z.S., Director of the
Natural History Department of the British Museum,
Cromwell Road, South Kensington, S, W. ; and 26,
Stanhope Gardens, London, S. W.
1890 Geikie, Sir Archibald, Sc.D., LL D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Surveys
of the United Kingdom, 28, Jermyn Street, London,
S.JT.
1875 GlaisTier, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc,
The Shola, Heathfield Road, South Croydon.
1879 Harting. James Edmund. F.L.S., F.Z.S., Mem. Brit. Om.
Union, Linnean Society, Burlington House, London, W,
1877 Henslow, Rev. George, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.H.S.,
Professor of Botany, Queen* s College, London, Bray-
ton House, Ealing,
1875 Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, R.N., K.C.S.I., C.B., M.D.,
D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., etc.. The Camp, Sunningdale, Berks,
1886 Jackson, Benjamin Daydon. Sec.L.S., Clevedon, Cautley
Avenue, Clapham Common, London, S, /F.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
± LIST OF ICEMBEBS.
1883 Jones, Thomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S., ex-Professor of
Geology at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst,
17, Parson's Green, Fulham, London, 8. W.
1875 Lubbock, Rt. Hon. Sir John, Bart., P.O., M.P., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.8., F.S.A., F.L.8., F.G.S., High Elms,
Famhorough, Kent\ and 15, Lombard Street, London,
KC.
1881 Ormerod, Eleanor A., F.R.Met.Soc, F.E.8., TorringUm
Souse, St, Albans,
1880 Sclater, PhiUp Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.8., Sec.Z.S., 3, Hanover Square, London, W,
1876 Symons, George James, F.R.S., 8ec.R.Met.Soc., 62, Camden
Square, London, N. W,
1896 Wallace, Alfred Russel, LL.D., F.R.8., F.L.S., Farkstone,
Dorset,
1876 Whitaker, William, B.A. (Lend.), F.R.8., F.G.S., Assoc.
Inst.C.E., Freda, Campden Road, Crogdon.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
1895 Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
1896 Rudler, F. W., F.G.S., M.A.I., Curator of the Museum of
Practical Geology, 28, Jermgn Street, London, S, W.
1894 Saunders, James, 49, Rothesag Road, Luton.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
OEDINAET MEMBEES.
An asterisk before a name indicates a Life Member.
Elected
1894 Adams, Miss, St, Peter* b JSouse, St. Albans,
1887 Andre, R., Melrose, Bushey Grove, Watford.
1879 Andrews, E. Thornton, Castle Street, Hertford.
1892 Archer, Miss Janet, St. George's Villa, Chalk Eill, Watford.
1890 Ashdown, C. H., F.C.S., F.R.G.S., Belmont, St. Albans.
1883 *Attenborough, Mrs., Hay don Hill, Bushey, Watford.
1877 *Attfield, John. M. A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C., ex-Pro-
fessor of Practical Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain, Ashlands, Watford; and
111, Temple Chambers, London, U.C.
1879 Anstin, Yemen, Blairyotvrie, Bengeo, Hertford,
1893 Ayres, Mrs., High Croft, Watford.
1893 Baldwin, W. Wallis, Netherheys, Watford.
1879 *Barclay, Rohert, High Leigh, Hoddesdon.
1891 Barclay, Rohert P., High Leigh, Hoddesdon,
1891 Barker, George, Kettlewells, St, Albans,
1887 Beck, Ernest, Hoddesdon.
1877 Benskin, Mrs. Joseph, Chalk Hill, Watford.
1892 Benskin, Thomas, Glenthome, Ha/rrow Weald,
1880 Berkeley, B. Comyns, Collett Hall, Ware,
1 883 *Berry, F. Haycraft, M.D. (Lond.), Wansford Home, Watford.
1883 *Bicker8teth, John P., Grove Mill House, Watford.
1880 Bishop, Mrs., Ths Flatts, Watford,
1892 Blackburn, H.
1885 Blathwayt, Arthur P., Frogmore, Watford,
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
6 LIST OF MEMBERS.
1894 Braithwaite, Cecil, Overhury^ Watford.
1887 Brown, Arthur M., M.A., Beech Orove^ IVing,
1885 Burchell-Herae, Rev. H. F. H., Bwhey Grange, Watford.
1884 Burr, E. T., Oakley Lodge, Clarendon Road, Watford.
1881 *Bu8hby, Lady Frances, Wormley Bury, Moddesdon.
1880 Butcher, H. 0. F., JET^A Street, Ware.
1889 *Butler, Charles, F.S.A., Warren Wood, Hatfield.
1879 Buxton, Alfred Fowell, 32, Qreat Cumberland Place,
London, W.
1894 Buxton, Dudley, M.D., 82, Mortimer Street, Cavendish
Square, London, W.
1 885 Buxton, John Henry, Hunedon Bury, Ware,
1879 Buxton, Thomas Fowell, Eaeneye Park, Ware.
1879 CampbeU, Frank Maule, F.L.S., F.Z.8., F.R.M.S., F.E.S.,
Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
1875 *Carew, Mrs., Carpenders Park, Watford,
1879 *Carlile, James "W., Ashendene, Hertford.
1896 Carter, W. R., B.A., How. Sec., Amesbury, Maiden Road,
Watford.
1891 Case, Henry, M.R.C.S., Leavesden Asylum, Watford.
1875 Chater, Edward M., St. Alban's Road, Watford.
1877 Clarendon, Right Honourable the Earl of, Grove Park,
Watford; and 11, Berkeley Square, London, W.
1879 *Cowper, Right Honourable the Earl, K.G., Panshanger,
Hertford ; 5, St, James^ Square, London, S. W. ; and
Athenaum Club, S. W.
1894 Cox, Alfred E., Buffield, Upton Road, Watford.
1876 *Croft, Richard Benyon, R.K., Fanhams Hall, Ware.
1878 ♦Croft, Mrs., Fanhams Hall, Ware,
1895 Crossman, Alan F., F.L.S., St. Cuthberts, Berkhamsted.
1894 Curry, Charles Albert, Woodoaks, Riekmansworth.
1888 Daw, S. J., Te Ingleside, Langley Park, Watford.
1890 Downer, Frederick, High Street, Watford.
1894 Dudgeon, Arthur, Northbank, Watford.
1885 Durrant, John Hartley, F.E.S., Entomological Secretary
to Lord Walsingham, Merton Hall, Thetford.
1893 Edmonds, Mrs., Ardwick House, Queen^s Road, Watford.
1883 Ekins, Arthur Edward, F.C.S., County Laboratory, St.
Albans.
1892 Essex, Right Honourable the Earl of, Cassiobury,
Watford.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LIST OF MEXBEB8. 7
1875 *Evan8, Sir John, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. R.S.,
V.P.8.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., Nath Milk, Emel
HempBtead.
1891 Evans, Lewis, F.S.A., Barnes Lodge, KingU Langley,
1878 Ewing, Rev. J. A., M.A., JFeetmill Rectory, Buntingford,
1892 risk, William J., Street Lodge, Watford.
1875 *Fordham, H. George, Odsey, AshweUy Baldoek.
1895 Frome- Wilkinson, Rev. J., M.A., F.L.S, Barley Rectory,
Royeton.
1879 *Gibbs, Arthur E., F.L.S., F.E.S., Cukatok, Avenue Bbuee,
St, Albans.
1891 Gibbs, Richard, 27ie Hollies, St. Albans.
1875 Gibbs, Surgeon-Major J. G., Riggendale Road, Streatham,
London, S. W.
1879 Gilbert, Sir Joseph Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.C.S., F.R.Met.Soc., Earpenden.
1894 Goodwin, J., Langley Park Souse, Watford.
1880 Grimthorpe, Right Honourable Baron, LL.D., Q.C.,
F.R.A.S., Batch Wood, St. Albans \ and 33, Queen
Anne Street, London, W.
1875 Groome, John Edward, King's Langley.
1891 Gruggen, W., L.R.C.P.E., 1 1, Montpellier Road, Ealing.
1875 *Halsey, Thomas F., M.P., Gaddesden Place, Eemel Eemp-
stead ; and 73, Eaton Place, London, S. W.
1894 Hardy, W. J., F.S.A., Milton Cottage, St. Albans.
1889 Harford, W. M., Manor Eouse, Bushey, Watford.
1875 Harrison, Edward, Upper Eascot, Watford.
1890 Headley, F. W., M.A., Eaileybury College, Eertford.
1894 Heaton, Noel, 9, Fitzroy Street, Fitzroy Square, London, W.
1887 Henty, Robert, Langley Eouse, Abbofs Langley.
1885 Hill, Daniel, Llbrabian, Eerga, St. Andrew^ s, Watford.
1881 HiU, WiUiam, F.G.S., The Maples, Eitchin.
1879 Hoare, Richard, Marden Eill, Tewin, Eertford.
1875 Holland, Stephen Taprell, Otterspool, Aldenham, Watford.
1875 HoUand-Hibbert, Hon. A. H., Munden Eouse, Watford.
1894 Holloway, William, Amcot, Watford.
1875 Hopkinson, Mrs. James, Eolly Bank, Watford.
1875 *Hopkin8on, John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.. F.R.Met.Soc,
Hon. Sec. and Editob, The Orange, St. Albans ; and
York Mansions, Cavendish Sgttare, London, W.
1875 *Hopkinson, Mrs. John, The Grange, St. Albans.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 LIST OP 1CEMBEB8.
1883 *HoveU, T. Mark, F.R.C.S. (Edin.), Boreham Holt,
iHstree; and 3, Mansfield Street, Cavendish Square^
Zondm, JF.
1892 *Hud8on, George Bickersteth, M.P., Frogmore BdU,
Hertford.
1885 Hughes, T. McKenny, M.A., F.R.8., F.S.A., F.G.S.,
Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge,
Trinity College, Cambridge.
1895 Jackson, E. H., 5, Lower Derby Road, Watford.
1875 James, J. Henry, Kingswood, Leavesden, Watford.
1894 Janes, Clement, Hunter* s Farm, Leavesden, Watford.
1877 Jeans, Mrs., Eastleigh, Essex Road, Watford.
1894 Johnson, Edmund L., -ETtfa^A^fentf, Watford.
1890 Jones, Charles E., Russell Farm, Watford.
1893 Jourdain, Miss, Corran, Watford.
1893 Kember, Mrs., Tregantle, Luton Road, Harpenden.
1893 Kent, Harold, Roseberry, Watford.
1879 Keyser, Charles Edward, F.S.A., Aldermaston, Berks;
and 47, Wilton Crescent, London, S. W.
1894 King, Arthur, M.B., Belmont, Watford.
1892 Knyvett, Felix Sumner, Ashwellthorpe, Watford.
1876 *Lambert, Colonel George, F.S.A., Coventry Street, Hay-
market, London, W.
1892 *Larkin, John, Lelrow, Aldenham, Watford.
1889 Lawrance, Venerable Archdeacon, M.A., The Rectory,
St. Albans.
1892 Lewis, Arthur, Sparrowswick, St. Albans.
1880 Lewis, Henry, Worley Road, St. Albans.
1896 Lilley, Cecil W., The Chestnuts, Wealdstone, Harrow.
1883 Lloyd, Frederick George, Langley House, Langley, Bucks.
1890 *Longman, A. H., Shendish, Hemel Hempstead.
1891 *Lowe, Frederick.
1889 *Loyd, E. H., Langleybury, Watford.
1891 *Lubbock, Henry, dewberries, Radlett.
1876 *Lucas, Francis, Hitchin.
1876 *Lucas, William, The Firs, Hitchin.
1876 McFarlane, W. McMurray, Loudwater, Rickmansworth.
1875 McGill, H. J., Aldenham, Watford.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
LIST OF MEHBEBS. 9
1894 Mackay, W. Ronald, Shirley Rouse, Watford.
1894 Mahon, F. C, JTolfeville, Clarendon Road, Watford.
1895 Mann, Thomas James, Hyde Rail, Sawhridgewortk.
1893 Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A., Beechfield, Watford.
1895 Marchant, J. F., Reronegate, Itickmansworth.
1881 *Marshall, Rev. C. J., M.A., Shillinysfone Rectory , Dorset.
1875 *Mar8hall, Frank E., M.A., Rofrow.
1890 Mawley, Edward, Pres.R.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S., Rosehank,
Berkhamsted.
1894 Metcalfe, W., Woodford Road, Watford.
1895 Meux, Sir Henry Bruce, Bart.. Theobalds, Waltham Cross.
1895 Moon, Henry George, London Road, St. Albans.
1885 Moore, Walter E., Westfield, St. Andrew's, Watford.
1882 Morison, John, M.D., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Albans.
1893 Murray, A. T., Rc^pley, Stratford Road, Watford.
1895 Myddelton, Thomas Cheadle, Spencer Rouse, St. Albans.
1893 Neele, G. P., The Lawn, Clarendon Road, Watford.
1880 Keish, J. Watson, Righfield, Watford.
1883 Nicholson, Sir Charles, Bart.. K.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.G.S.. F.R.Met.Soc, The Grange, Totteridge.
1875 Noakes, Simpson, Bmhey Reath, Watford.
1889 Korman, F. H., Moor Place, Much Rodham.
1894 Oddie, E. G., Oxford Lodge, Watford.
1894 Osborne, Mrs., Widcombe Lodge, Watford.
1895 Page, William, F.S.A., The White Rouse, St. Albans.
1893 Pank, John Lovell, Bamet.
1889 *Panton, J. A., Wayside, Watford.
1885 ♦Parker, Rev. J. D., LL.D., F.R.Met.Soc, Bennington
Rouse, Stevenage.
1879 Phillips, Frederick W., Manor Rome, Ritchin.
1876 *Pollard, Joseph, Righ Down, Ritchin.
1879 Price, George, Righ Street, Ware.
1887 Procter, Harold, Runton Bridge, Watford.
1881 *Pryor, Marlborough R., M.A., F.Z.S., Weston Manor,
Stevenage.
1892 Puddicombe, W. N., M.R.C.S., London Road, St. Albans.
1881 *Ransom, Francis, 13, Bancroft, Ritchin.
1877 *Ran8om, WiUiam, F.S.A., F.L.S., Fairfield, Ritchin.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
10 LIST OF KSMBESS.
1892 ♦Riggal, James K., 3, Albert Terrace, Watford.
1887 Roberts, T. Vaughan, Ferulam Bouse, Watford.
1875 Rooper, George, F.Z.S., Naecot House, Watford.
1888 ♦Rothschild, Honourable Walter, Tring Pari, Tring \ and
New Court, London, £, C.
1894 Rudyard, H. Ashton, M.D., 8t. Alban's Road, Watford.
1895 Russell, J. B., B.Sc, 17, Lower B&rhy Road, Watford.
1891 Sainsbury, Percy Hamilton, Huskards, Watford.
1 879 ♦SaHsbury, Most Noble the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Hatfield House, Hatfield; and 20, Arlington Street,
London, 8.W.
1894 Sedgwick, Rupert W., 44, High Street, Watford.
1883 ♦Seebohm, Frederick, The Hermitage, Hitchin.
1878 Selby, Miss, Battlers Green, Radlett.
1891 Sell, Miss L. C. Fairfield House, Watford.
1880 Shelly, Charles Edward, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), M.R.C.S.,
Fore Street, Hertford.
1883 Sherry, Henry S., Bynmore, Watford.
1875 Silvester, Frank W., Hedges, St. Albans.
1893 Slinn, E. J., Langsyne, Watford.
1891 Slocombe, Edward, Oxhey Warren, Watford.
1879 Smith, Abel. M.P., Woodhall Fork, Watton, Hertford-, and
35, Chesham Place, London, S. W.
1881 Smith, Abel H., M.P., Watton, Hertford.
1875 Smith, Joseph G., Hamper Mills, Watford.
1879 Smith, Urban A., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 14, Endsleigh
Gardens, London, N. W.
1875 ♦Smith, W. Lepard, Watford.
1880 ♦Smith-Bosanquet, Horace J., F.R.G.S., Broxboume Bury,
Hoddesdon.
1890 ♦Solly, H. Reynolds, Serge Hill, Bedmont.
1894 Spencer, S. H., Jun., 45, Gladstone Road, Watford.
1894 Spurr, Edwin, Fernlea, Westland Road, Watford.
1875 Stone, William T., Oxhey Lane, Watford.
1883 StradUng, Arthur, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, Flores,
Watford.
1875 Thairlwall, F. J., 12, Upper Park Road, London, N. W.
1887 Thomhill, James, F.L.S., Oxford House, St. Albans.
1886 Tuck, Horace J., St. Leonardos, Bengeo, Hertford.
1894 Turner, Thomas, Oakleigh, Watford.
1890 Van Raalte, Charles, Aldenham Abbey, Watford.
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LIST OF ICEHBEBS. 1 1
1878 Vaughan, Rev. Edward T., M.A., Langhyhury Vicarage^
Watford.
1892 Verey, A. Sainsbury, Mem. Brit. Om. Unioii, MerotMgatey
Mickmanuporth.
1875 Yerini, William, Birchjield Cottage, Watford,
1896 Venilam, Eight Honourable the Earl of, Soptoell, St.
Albans.
1879 Wailes, G. Herbert, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., JRounton, Watford,
1875 Walker, J. Watson, Cefn Llys, Stanley Road, Watford.
1893 Wallen, Frederick, Bricket, Watford; and 96, Oower Street,
London, W.C.
1 892 *Wardale, Rev. John, M. A., Datckworth Rectory, Stevenage,
1881 Weall, John, Tbeasuebb, Rutland Lodge; and 38, Sigh
Street, Watford.
1894 Wehrschmidt, Daniel A., Cleveland, Bushey, Watford,
1894 Wells, T. P. Grosart, L.R.C.P. (Edin.), St, Peter's Street,
St. Albans.
1895 *White, Miss Rose, Lismore Lodge, St. Albans.
1880 White, S. Monckton, Ehnsleigh, St. Albans,
1881 ♦Wigram, Miss E., Moor Place, Much Hadham.
1894 Williams, W. H., Alexandra Road, Watford,
1892 Wilks, E. T., F.R.G.S., Clarendon Road, Watford,
1894 Wilson, Rev. Arthur, M.A., Leavesden Vicarage, Watford.
1875 ♦Wilson, Miss Mary, 4, JSssex Road, Watford.
1894 Wood, Mrs., 66, Oxford Terrace, Hyde Park, London, W,
1882 *Woods, Thomas Hoade, Durrants, Watford.
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TOPOGEAPHICAL INDEX TO THE MEMBERS.
An asterisk after a name indicates an Honorary Member ; an obelisk, a
Corresponding Member.
Bedfobdshibe.
ZtUon — Saunders, J.f
Berkshire.
Alder maston — Keyser, C. E. | SunningdaU — Hooker, SirJ. D.*
BnCXINGHAMSHIRE.
Langley — Lloyd, F. G.
Cambridgeshire.
Cambridge — Hughes, Prof. T. McK.
Dorsetshire.
Parkstone — Allman, Prof. G. J.* I Shillingstone — Marshall,Eev.C.J.
Wallace, Dr. A. R.* |
Hertfordshire.
Ahhofs Langley — Henty, R.
Barnet — Pank, J. L.
Bedmont — Solly, H. R.
Berkhamsted — Grossman, A. F.
Mawley, E.
Buntingford ( WestmilT) —
Ewing, Rev. J. A.
jF/^^r^^?— Hovell, T. M.
Harpenden — Gilbert, Sir J. H.
Kember, Mrs.
Eatfield—^Mi\Qr, C.
Salisbury, Marquis of
Memel Hempstead — Evans, SirJ.
Halsey, T. F.
Longman, A. H.
Mtrtford — Ajidrews, R. T.
Carlile, J. W.
Cowper, Earl
Hudson, G. B.
SheUy, Dr. C. E.
(Bengeo) — Austin, V.
Tuck, H. J.
• {Raileyhury) — ^Headley, F.
W.
-(7>M^m)— Hoare, R.
-(^tf«o«)— Smith, A.
• Smith, A. H.
JEri^(?Ain— Hill, W.
Lucas, F.
Lucas, W.
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TOPOGBAPHICAL INDEX TO THE MEMBERS.
'3
J7tY(?^i»— Phillips, F. W.
PoUard, J.
Ransom, F.
Ransom, W.
Seebohm, F.
JSbddesdon — Barclay, R.
Barclay, R. P.
Beck, E.
Bushby, Lady F,
Campbell, F. M.
Smith-Bosanquet, H. J.
Kingh LangUy — Evans, L.
Groome, J. E.
Muchffadham — ^Norman, F. H,
Wigram, Miss E.
-Fordham, H. G.
Jiadlett^Lnhhock, H.
Selby, Miss
Rickmanaworth — Curry, C. A.
McFarlane, W. McM.
{Heromgate) — Marchant,
J. F.
Verey, A. S.
Royston — Frome - Wilkinson,
Rev. J.
8t, Allans — Adams, Miss
Asbdown, C. H.
Barker, G.
Ekins, A. E.
Gibbs, A. E.
Gibbs, R.
Grimtborpe, Baron
Hardy, W. J.
HopHnson, J.
Hopkinson, Mrs.
Lawrance, Archdeacon
■ Lewis, A.
Lewis, H.
Moon, H. G.
Morison, Dr. J.
Myddelton, T. C.
■ Onnerod, Miss E. A.*
Page, W.
Puddicombe, W. N.
Silvester, F. W,
ThomhiU, J.
Verulam, Earl of
Wells, T. P. G.
Hebtfobdshire {continued).
St. u4^fta»<— White, Miss R.
White, 8. M.
Satohridgewarth — Mann, T. J.
Stevenage {Bennington) — Parker,
Rev. J. D.
(Datchwortk) — Wardale,
Rev. J.
(^M^on)— Pryor, M. R.
Totteridge — Nicholson, Sir C.
7V«»^— Brown, A. M.
RothschHd, Hon. W.
Waltham Cm*— Meux, Sir H. B.
^arij— Berkeley, B. C.
Butcher, H. 0. F.
Buxton, J. H.
Buxton, T. F.
Croft, R B.
Croft, Mrs.
Price, G.
?ra//or(^— Andr6, R.
Archer, Miss J.
Attfield. Prof. J.
Ayres, Mrs.
Baldwin, W. W.
Benskin, Mrs. J.
Berry, Dr. F. H.
Bickersteth, J. P.
Bishop, Mrs.
Blathwayt, A. P.
Braithwaite, C.
Burchell-Heme, Rev. H,
Burr, E. T.
Carew, Mrs.
Carter, W. R.
Chater, E. M.
Clarendon, Earl of
Cox, A. E.
Daw, S. J.
Downer, F.
Dudgeon, A.
Edmonds, Mrs.
Essex, Earl of
Fisk, W. J,
Goodwin, J.
Harrison, E.
Hill, D.
Holland-Hibbert,Hon. AH.
Holloway, W.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
'4
TOPOORAPHIGAL INDEX
Hehtfobd8H£be (e&ntinued).
Watford — Hopkinson, Mn.
Jackson, E, H.
Jeans, Mrs.
Johnson, E. L.
Jones, C. E.
Jourdain, Miss
Kent, H.
King, Dr. A.
Knyvett, F. 8.
Loyd, E. H.
Mackay, W. R.
Mahon, F. C.
Manning, P.
Metcalfe, W.
Moore, W. E.
Murray, A. T.
Neele, G. P.
NeiBh, J. W.
Oddie, E. G.
Osborne, Mrs.
Panton, J. A.
RiggaU, J. K.
Roberts, T. V.
Rooper, G.
Rudyard, Dr. H. A.
Russell, J. B.
Sainsbury, P. H.
Sedgwick, R.
SeU, Miss L. C.
Sherry, H. 8.
Slinn, E. J.
Slocombe, E.
JTafford-^Sirdth, J. G.
Smith, W. L.
Spencer, 8. H., Jun.
Stone, W. T.
Stradling, A.
Spurr, E.
Turner, T.
Vaughan, Rev. E. T.
Verini, W.
Wailes, G. H.
Walker, J. W.
WeaU, J.
Wilks, E. T.
Williams, W. H.
Wilson, Miss M.
Woods, T. H.
{Aldmkam)—'R6llmd,B,T.
Larkm, J.
McGill, H. J.
Van Raalte, C.
(Brickety-WaRen, F.
(Bushey) — Attenborough,
Mrs.
Harford, W. M.
Noakes, 8.
Wehrschmidt, D. A.
(^Hunton Bridge) — Procter,
H.
(Leavesdm) — Case, H.
Jomeu, J. H.
Janes, C.
Wilson, Rey. A.
Kent.
Famhorawjfh — Lubbock, Sir J.*
MiDDLBSEX.
Haling — Gruggen, W.
Henslow, Rev. Prof. G.*
ITarrow—LUlej, C. W.
MarshaU, F. E.
Harrow Weald — Benskin, T.
London — Attfield, Prof. J.
Buxton, A. F.
Buxton. Dr. D.
Clarendon, Earl of
London — Cooke, Dr. M. C*
Cowper, Earl
Etheridge, R.*
Flower, Sir W.*
Geikie, Sir A.*
Grimthorpe, Baron
Halsey, T. F.
Harting, J. E *
Heaton, N.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
TO 't' Tffc MEMBSRS*
15
Middlesex (continued).
London — ^Kopkinson, J.
Hovell, T. M.
Jones, Prof. T. R *
Keyser, C. E.
Lambert, G.
Lubbock, Sir J*
Rothschild, Hon. W.
Rudler, F. W.f
London — SaKsbury, Marquis of
Sclater, Dr. P. L.*
Smith. A.
Smith, U. A.
Symons, G. J.*
Thairlwall, F. J,
WaUen, F.
Wood, Mrs.
NOBPOLK.
Thefford'-DuTrmt, J. U.
Croydon — Glaisher, J.*
Whitaker, W.*
Kew— Cooke, Dr. M. C*
SUBBBT.
Kew — Massee, G.f
Zotk^on— Gibbs, J. G.
Jackson, B. D.»
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
EECOKDEES.
Pbe-Hjstoeic ARCHiEOLOGT. — Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L.,
LL.D., Sc.D., r.R.S., etc.
' Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts.
Avea. — Alan F. Grossman.
Reptilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S.
Zoology. < Zepidoptera, — A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S.
Araehnida.'-F. M. Campbell, F.L.S.
Mollusca. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S.
, Rotifera and Protozoa, — ^F. W. Phillips.
' Fhanerogamia and Filices. — Miss Selby.
Characeay Muaciy ITepatica, and Mycetoma. — James
Botany. \ Saunders, Corr. Memb.
Fungi — George Massee, F.L.S., Corr. Memb.
, Desmidea and Diatomacea. — Francis Ransom.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.
■^-
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3 2044 106 261 084
Date Due
4
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